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McMunn's Graphic Grammar. 



G R A M M A E 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



DESIGNED FOR THE ILLUSTRATION OF 



A SERIES OF 



GRAMMAR CHARTS. 



BY 



JOHN B. ^IcMUNK 


U° 




■ .---,.- « 




NEW YORK: 




LAMPORT, BLAKEMAN & 


LAW, 


8 Park Place. 





1853, 



c 4l 



i* 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by 

JOHN B. McJ AXlNJSJi 

In the Klerk's Office of tnt District Court of the United States, for the 

Southern District of New York. 



Stereotyped by Vincent Dill, Jr., 
No. 29 Beelcman Street, N. Y. 



PREFACE. 



; . yyi\ m ...... 

This Work is an effort to furnish* a Grammar of the 
English Language, combining practical utility with scien- 
tific precision, for the purpose of meeting the exigencies 
of the present advanced and daily improving method of 
elementary teaching. 

In classification and arrangement, it corresponds with 
the Graphic Grammar Charts which it is designed to ex- 
plain ; and, taken together, they constitute one harmoni- 
ous system of English Grammar, scientific in principle, 
and comprehensive in detail. 

The author feels it his duty to acknowledge his obliga- 
tions to his predecessors, in the same department of litera- 
ture, for the liberal use which, in many instances, he has 
made of their labors in the following pages ; since, free from 
any affectation of entire originality, he has. not scrupled 
to avail himself of them, when they suited his plan and 



IV PREFACE. 

arrangement, and could be adapted to the particular 
purpose for which they are introduced. In doing so, 
however, he trusts, the intelligent reader will perceive 
that he has neither copied with servility, nor implicitly 
adopted their decisions ; but, striving to be something 
more than a mere compiler, he has made many emenda- 
tions and original improvements, and elucidated some 
principles, which seem to have escaped the observation of 
all other grammarians. 

That this work could be faultless, would be to account 
it a super-human production. For mistakes, oversights, 
and omissions, which may have escaped the author's 
attention, his only plea is, that liability to err which is 
the lot of all. 

With these remarks, he respectfully submits his work 

to the consideration of an intelligent public, on whose 

judgment he relies for that reception of it which its merits 

shall be thought to deserve, and beyond which he has no 

desire to claim either favor or patronage. 

Middletown, Orange Co., New York, > 
July 5, 1853. 5 



CIRCULAR. 



M C MUNN'S 

GEAPHIC GRAMMAR: 

A Series of Grammar Charts on an Original Plan ; 
Exhibiting the Rules of the English Language by 

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS AND TABULAR ARRANGEMENT ; 

Rendering them obvious to the Mind and indelible upon 

the Memory ; adapted both to Public and Private 

Schools, and 

DESIGNED TO BE EMINENTLY AUXILIARY TO THE PRE- 
SENT POPULAR GRAMMARS AND METHODS OF 
INSTRUCTION. 



BY JOHN B. Mc MUNN. 



It will be no slight recommendation of these Grammar Charts, 
to Teachers and Superintendents of Schools, that they can be im- 
mediately introduced into classes, already formed, without requir- 
ing a change of the Grammars now in use, or of- any system of 
instruction that may have been established./ ••-.*•; 

They will be found to harmonize, both' in classification and^io- 
menclature, with the improved Grammars most generally adopted ,- 
and this small Text-book which is designed to accompany them, 
and to which they numerically refer, may be regarded rather as a 
compendious abstract, auxiliary to all Grammars, than a trouble- 
some innovation upon any. 

The author, therefore, aims to effect a great improvement upon 
the more laborious and less effectual methods of grammatical 
'tuition, at present pursued, without imposing the intermediate 
ordeal of reluctant and unaccustomed discipline, either upon 
teachers or pupils. On the contrary, he seeks and expects suc- 
cess only through the facile and gratified experience of both. 

The importance justly attached to a knowledge of the Grammar 
of our own language, as an indispensable qualification for most of 
the higher avocations and positions in civilized society, and as the 
only security against ridicule and contenipt, even in the humblest, 
causes it to be taught to the children of all classes, at a very 
early age. Iadee.d, it is probable that the almost religious ardor 



Vi 



with which this object, involving such alternatives, is sought, by 
the parents and guardians of youth, in modern times, and especi- 
ally, in this country, has hastily pretermitted, rather than deliber- 
ately developed the best means of attaining it. 

Certain it is, that there is no branch of education in which 
children labor with such wearisome and ineffectual toil ; with so 
little intellectual interest and comprehension ; or for so small an 
amount of permanent acquisition. And it may be asserted, as an 
illustrative fact which but few will be eager to dispute, that 
scarcely one educated person out of thousands, who have studied 
grammar only in early youth, is able to parse a sentence at 
mature age. Many may both speak and write the language, with 
tolerable propriety, if they have been accustomed, in the interim, 
to the practice of good society, or of careful reading and writing ; 
and they may be acutely sensible of every gross grammatical 
error that meets their eye or ear. But the vast majority who are 
thus far accurate and sensitive, have become so through these ex- 
traneous advantages alone, and in absolute independence of 
obligations to grammar. Comparatively few of them could assign 
a grammatical rule for their own accuracy, or for the errors they 
detect in others. They resemble persons, of good musical aptitude, 
who play by ear, with great self-complacency, and general admi- 
ration ; but who are perpetually liable to blunders, literally 
ludicrous to every educated musician. And such is the practical 
condition of our language, even in this country, under the existing 
system of grammatical instruction. It systematically involves a 
deplorable sacrifice of youthful time and toil, for an evanescent 
acquirement of which scarcely a vestige remains, when its pos- 
session, in unimpared completeness, becomes of inestimable value. 

Assuming this statement to be as unimpeachable as it is unre- 
served, it is evident that so prevalent a failure, in the grammati- 
cal department 1 of education, must be attributed either to the 
inherent difficulties of the study, or to the inadequacy of its present 
facilities, to the powers of the juvenile mind. The latter cause, 
as measured by the former, undoubtedly affords the true explana- 
tion. The inherent difficulties are so great as to demand greater 
facilities for surmounting them than have heretofore been 
provided. 

The majority of children are chained to the study of grammar, ■ 
before they have either heard or read any considerable number 
of the words of the language to which its imperious rules are to be 
applied, in diversified and inexhaustible examples. Even its terms 
are, at once, more abstract in meaning, more technical, and more 
exclusively remote from ordinary use and association, than those 
of most other sciences ; while its rules — especially in a language, 
like our own, of rapid growth and still crude formation — admit of 
disquisitions requiring the subtlest metaphysical analysis, and the 
clearest intellectual decisions. 



VII 

That a science of this abstruseness, even to adults, demands 
every possible simplification for childhood, is but too evident in 
the imperfect manner in which it is ordinarily acquired and re- 
tained. Yet, singular to say, it has been furnished with fewer 
and feebler collateral aids, than others which need them incom- 
parably less. Arithmetic, the science of numbers, everywhere 
replete with simple, graphically obvious and beautiful distinctions 
and analogies, is supplied with tables and self-proving rules, 
which cover the whole field of its applicability. Hence children, 
who soon forget almost every case, mood and tense of Grammar, 
remember the multiplication table, and the four rules of Arith- 
metic, which it illustrates, to the end of life. Geography, a still 
more simple study, requiring but little intellectual effort, is still 
more profusely supplied with delineated illustrations ; and oceans, 
islands, capes, continents and kingdoms, are depicted to the eye, 
as well as defined to the ear. Astronomy, though requiring, as 
popularly taught, but little more than an elementary knowledge 
of Arithmetic to solve its problems, is facilitated, like Geography, 
by innumerable diagrammatic illustrations and mechanical de- 
vices, such as charts, globes and orreries ; and, like Chemistry 
and Natural Philosophy, by various ocular demonstrations. But 
Grammar, the most intellectual and abstract of all the sciences, 
taught in early youth, is left entirely to verbal memory, without 
a single extra appliance to interest and sustain the mind. Even 
in learning the alphabet, the child's attention is arrested by the 
graphic novelty of each successive character, and is encouraged 
by seeing the whole course and end of his task at a single view ; 
while, in Grammar, all is mentally vague, uninviting, and con- 
sciously abortive. 

Impressed with the importance of engaging every available 
external sense to cooperate in mental labor, the author has 
attempted to provide those aids for the acquisition qf .Grammar, as 
far as the subject admits of them, that are so successfully em- 
ployed in other studies. In a series of Five Charts, executed 
on a large scale, he presents to the eye of the student, and to a 
whole class at once, the distinctive character and functions — the 
divisions, classes, groupings and modifications — of the successive 
parts of speech, that comprise the whole body of the language. 
Each part is further illustrated by practical examples, in tabular 
forms not heretofore devised ; and there is no elementary rule, 
nor important exception to a rule, that is not thus visibly 
exemplified. 

Each chart exhibits a clear and entire view of the distinct 
branch of the language which it embraces ; and in the series of 
five charts, the pupil has a complete and encouraging survey of 
his whole task, both in its magnitude and its minuteness. The 
unexplored future of the Grammar book, loses its chimerian ter- 
rors, and the many labors of Hercules, reduced to five, are 



Vlll 



performed by observation. Indeed, the acquisition of a thorough 
knowledge of grammatical science, is rendered almost as easy as 
that of five distinct plants in a conservatory, from the character 
of their branches, foliage and flowers ; and is attended with the 
additional satisfaction of knowing that this system of grammatical 
botany has no specimens that are not included in this compendi- 
ous collection. 

The triumphant facilities thus afforded to the pupil, must prove 
equally valuable and gratifying to the teacher. His protracted 
and arduous labors will be reduced at least two-thirds in point of 
time, and still more in intensity ; and the large proportion of 
time thus saved, may be appropriated to other important purposes. 
Indeed, the author hesitates not to aver that a more complete and 
permanent knowledge of all the essential principles of the lan- 
guage can be acquired, by means of these charts, in three months, 
than can possibly be obtained without them in as many years. 
And he is fortified in this confident prediction, by the concurrent 
opinion of many persons of great judgment and experience. 

With these views he respectfully submits his Grammar Charts 
to the consideration of Parents, Teachers, Superintendents and 
Trustees of Schools, under the hope that they will be deemed 
worthy of a speedy introduction and adoption by them, and by 
all others who possess a direct influence or interest in providing 
the best means of private or popular education. 

The Charts are lithographic prints, of large dimensions, drawn 
in a bold and conspicuous style, and mounted upon cloth, at no 
inconsiderable expense. They will be sold at the moderate price 
of $10 a set ; one series being deemed sufficient for the use of 
any school of ordinary size. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



1. This work is designed as a Text-book, to accompany 
and illustrate the Graphic Grammar Charts ; and al- 
though its classifications and arrangements are peculiarly 
adapted to them, yet it may be used as advantageously 
without them as any other grammar. 

2. The figures attached to the definitions of the various 
parts of speech, and to the observations and remarks 
under them, denote their reference to corresponding 
figures on their respective Charts. 

3. The more important definitions, rules, and observa- 
tions, are printed with large type, for the purpose of 
designating what parts those beginning the study of 
grammar should learn, the first time of their going 
through the book. These should be very accurately and 
thoroughly committed to memory. To this end, and for 
indelibly impressing them upon the memory, they should 
be repeated over and over again in their parsing recita- 
tions, in like manner as they are in the examples for pars- 
ing. Those parts which are difficult to be understood, 
should be illustrated and made plain by the oral instruc- 
tion of the teacher. 

4. The subordinate definitions and explanations which 
serve, in most cases, to explain the principal subjects, are 
printed with smaller type. These, or the most of them, 
will be perused and learned by the student to the greatest 
advantage, if postponed till the second time of their 
going through the book. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the art of speaking 
and writing the English language with pro- 
priety. 

It is divided into four parts, namely, 
— Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosody. 

1. Orthography treats of the nature and 
sounds of letters, and the correct method 
of spelling words. 

2. Etymblogy treats of the different sorts 
of words, their classification, and various 
modifications. 

3. Syntax treats of the agreement, govern- 
ment, and arrangement of words in sen- 
tences. 

4. Prosody treats of punctuation, the true 
pronunciation of words, and the laws of 
versification. 



10 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR 



PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of the nature and sounds 
of letters, and the correct method of spelling 
words. 

As instructions in this part of grammar are given in 
spelling-books and dictionaries, they are omitted in this 
work. 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their classification, and various modi- 
fications. 

There are, in English, nine sorts of words; 
or, as they are commonly called, Parts of 
Speech, namely, the Article, the Noun, the 
Pronoun, the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, 
the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the 
Interjection. 

1. An Article is a word placed before 
nouns to limit their signification ; as, a gar- 
den, an eagle, the woman. 



ETYMOLOGY. 1 1 

2. A Noun is the name of any person, 
place, or thing ; as, John, New York, school, 
justice, reflection. 

3. A Pronoun is a word used instead of 
a noun ; as, " The man is happy ; he is be- 
nevolent ; he is useful." 

4. An Adjective is a word used to qual- 
ify or define nouns ; as, a long journey; that 
boy ; each girl ; fifty dollars. 

5. A Verb is a word that signifies to be, 
to do, or to suffer; as, I am, I rule, I am 
ruled. 

6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to 
a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another 
adverb, to express some quality or circum- 
stance respecting it; as "He reads well;" 
" he is secretly plotting mischief;" "a truly 
good man;" " he writes very correctly." 

7. A Preposition is a word placed before 
a noun or a pronoun, to connect it with 
another word, and to show the relation be- 
tween them; as "He went from New York 
to Boston with me." 

8. A Conjunction is a word that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences, so as out of two 
or more, to make but one sentence* It some- 
times connects only words; as, "Thou and 
he are happy, because you are good;" "two 
and three are five." 

9. An Interjection is a word thrown into a 
sentence, to express some strong or sudden 



12 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

emotion of the mind; as, Ah! For shame! 
Oh! Alas! 



ARTICLES. 

1. An Article is a word placed before 
nouns to limit their signification ; as, a gar- 
den, an eagle, the woman. 

2. There are two kinds of articles, the 
Indefinite, which is a or an; and the Definite , 
which is the. 

3. I. The Indefinite article, a or an, points 
out one single thing of the kind, but no 
particular one; as, "Bring me a book ; give 
me an apple ;" that is, any book, or any 
apple. 

4. A is used before words beginning with a consonant, or a con- 
sonant sound ; as, a week, a year, a ewer, a euphony, a unit, many 
a one. 

5. Ji becomes an before words, whether nouns or adjectives, 
beginning with a vowel, or a silent h; as, an infant, an only 
child, an honest man, an hour. 

6. But when the h is sounded, the a only is to be used; as, a 
hand, a heart, a highway. 

7. A or an signifies one, and can be joined 
to nouns of the singular number only ; as, a 
man, an idle boy. 

8. II. The Definite article the determines 
what particular thing and things are meant ; 
as, " Bring me the book ; give me the apples ;" 
meaning some particular book or apples re- 
ferred to. 



ETYMOLOGY. 13 

9. The article the can be applied both to 
singular and plural nouns, whether they 
begin with vowels or consonants; as, the 
army, the armies ; the man, the men ; the 
house, the houses. 

Observation. — The article the denotes objects in the same 
manner as this or that, these or those, but less emphatically ; 
and seems to bear the same analogy to them, that a or an does 
to one and any. 

Remark. — The articles were erroneously classed with adjec- 
tives by many of the old grammarians, and their example is imi- 
tated by some at the present day. The following reasons may 
suffice for the distinct classification here adopted : 

1. Articles belong to nouns, only when the latter are expressed, 
while adjectives may belong to them, whether expressed or un- 
derstood. 

2. Articles are always placed before nouns, while adjectives 
are not always so placed. 

3. Articles never can represent nouns, while adjectives can, 
and often do. * 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

"A hook is on the desk" 

A is an Article, which is a word placed before a noun to 

limit its signification ; Indefinite, it points out one 
single thing of the kind, but not any particular one : and 
agrees with book, according to Rule I., which says, " The 
indefinite article a or an agrees with nouns in the sin- 
gular number only, individually or collectively. 

book. ... is a Common Noun, in the singular number. 

is is a Verb ; it is a word that signifies to be, to do, or to 

suffer; this verb signifies to be. 

on is a Preposition, it is a word placed before nouns and 

pronouns, to connect them with other words, and to 
show the relation between them ; this connects^ooA; and 
desk, &e. 



j.4 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

the is an Article; Definite, because it determines what 

particular thing and things are meant ; and agrees with 
desk, according to Rule I., which says, " The definite 
article the agrees with nouns both in the singular and 
the plural number." 

desk, . ..is a Common Noun, because it is the name of a thing. 

A new house. An old man. A horse. An apple 
The men. The boy. The books. The paper. A useful 
article. An interesting story. An honorable man. A 
university. An hereditary title. An heretical opinion. 
A uniform appearance. A useless undertaking. A Eu- 
ropean citizen. Many persons were there. Numerous 
reports are in circulation. All men must die. Man is 
born to die. 

QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF ARTICLES. 

1. What is an Article ? 

2. How many kinds of articles are there ? Name them. 

3. Define the Indefinite article? 

4. Before what words is a used ? 

5. When does a become an ? 

6. When a word begins with an h sounded, which is 
used, a or an ? 

7. To nouns of what number only, can a or an be 
joined ? and why ? 

8. Define the Definite article. 

9. Can the article the be applied to nouns of both 
numbers ? And can it, whether they begin with vowels 
or consonants ? 



NOUNS. 



1. A Noun is the name of any person, 
place, or thing; as, John, New York, school, 
justice, reflection. 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

Obs. — The name of every thing that exists, or which we can 
see, hear, smell, taste, feel, or think of, is a noun. 

Any word may also be known to be a noun, and distinguished 
as such from the other parts of speech* by the following character- 
istics, peculiar to nouns only : — 

1. When it has before it an article, an adjective, or a noun or 
pronoun of the possessive case. 

2. When its plural is formed by the addition of s or es to the 
singular. 

3. When its possessive case is formed by the use of an apostrophe. 

These signs show that such words as another, other, one, for- 
mer, latter, &c, are nouns, especially when used in the plural 
number, or in the possessive case. 

2. Nouns have four properties, namely, 
Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

CLASSES. 

3. Nouns are divided into two general 
classes, Proper and Common. 

4. I. A Proper noun is the particular name 
of an individual person, place, or thing ; as, 

George, Boston, Niagara, The Hudson. 

Obs. — As proper nouns are the names given to particular indi- 
viduals, to distinguish them from all others, therefore, 

5. Proper nouns are used only in the sin- 
gular number. 

6. A common noun may be used as a proper noun, to represent 
individuality, by placing before it, the definite article the, or the 
definitive adjective this, or that ; as, " Thou art the man ;" " that 
boy is diligent ;" " this girl is studious ;" " that river is deep ;" 
" The Park ;" " The Battery." It is in this way that a general 
term is made to serve as a substitute for a proper name. 

7. II. A Common noun is the name of a 



1 6 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

sort, or class of things ; as, animal, man, bird, 
tree, &c. 

8. A proper name becomes common, when it is used in the 
plural number, and also when it has an article prefixed to it ; as, 
u The twelve Ccesars ;" " the Bonapartes of the preceding gen- 
eration ;" " He is the Cicero of his age ;" " He is as daring as a 
Catiline ;" " The Bonaparte who is Emperor of France ;" " He 
is a Hercules, or an Achilles." 

Obs. — In the preceding examples, it is evident that " the Cce- 
sars " and " the Bonapartes" are put for a class of individuals ; 
and that " the Cicero" and " a Catiline" are equivalent to the 
common terms, a great orator, and a daring conspirator. Hence, 
it will be observed, that articles prefixed to proper names, have 
the effect to make them common : and sometimes, the definite 
article the prefixed to a common noun, can make it serve as a 
substitute for a proper noun ; as, " Thou art the man" 

PARTICULAR CLASSES. 

9. Common nouns include also the follow- 
ing particular classes, namely, Compound, Col- 
lective, Abstract and Participial. 

10. A Compound noun is a noun composed 
of two or more words connected with a 
hyphen ; as, man-servant, son-in-law, com- 
mander-in-chief, &c. 

11. A Collective noun, or noun of multitude, 
is the name of a collection of many individu- 
als ; as, the people, the Congress, an army, a 
school, a flock, a drove, &c. 

12. An Abstract noun is the name of a 
quality abstracted from its substance ; as, 
goodness, whiteness, knowledge, pride, &c. 

Obs. — Most of the abstract nouns are formed from adjectives by 



ETYMOLOGY. 11 

adding ness , as, from sweet, sweetness ; from good, goodness, 
&c. Several are also formed with other terminations ; as, ity> 
cty, th, ence, dom, &c. ; as, purity, variety, health, strength, 
insolence, freedom, &c. 

13. A Participial noun is the name of an 
action, or a state of being; as, hunting, fishing, 
walking ; standing, sitting, staying, &c. 



FORMATIONS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER AND THE 
POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS. 

The learning of this part may be deferred until after 
the pupils have learned the Numbers and Cases of the 
nouns, in their proper places, when they can return to it 
more understandingly. 

The nominative and the objective case of nouns are 
always alike. The possessive is, therefore, the only case 
that is formed by inflection, or in which a mistake can 
easily be made. In order, therefore, that the pupils may 
be made familiar with its formation, and where the apos- 
trophe should, on all occasions, be placed, they should 
give particular attention to the examples of the declension 
of nouns on the Chart, and be required to write similar 
exercises on a black-board, slate, or paper, until they can 
place the apostrophe in both numbers correctly. 

14. The possessive case of nouns is generally formed by adding 
an apostrophe with the letter s after it, thus, 's, to the nomina- 
tive in both numbers ; as, man, man's ; men, men's ; child, 
child's ; children, children's, &c. 

15. When the nominative plural ends in s, the apostrophe only 
should be added to form the possessive plural; thus, fathers, 
fathers'; mothers, mothers-; sons, sons', &c. 

16. Nouns which end in y in the" singular, with no other vowel 
in the same syllable, change the y into ies in the plural ; as, 
lady, ladies ; fly, flies ; city, cities. But the y is not changed, 
when there is another vowel in the syllable ; as, day, days ; key, 
keys, &c. 



18 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

17. Nouns ending in/<?, or/, are made plural by changing those 
terminations into ves ; as, wife, wives ; leaf, leaves, &c. 

18. Nouns ending in x, s, sh, and ch soft, form their plural by- 
adding es to the singular ; as, fox, foxes ; miss, misses , dish, 
dishes ; peach, peaches. 

19. Those nouns which are alike in both numbers, form their 
possessive by adding s, with the apostrophe before it in the singu- 
lar, and after it in the plural ; thus, sheep's, sheeps'; deer's, deers\ 

20. Compound nouns, such as father-in-law , son-in-law, &c, 
are made plural by adding s to the first or principal word ; as, 
fathers -in-law , so?is-in-law, &c. ; and they form their possessive, 
by adding s to the adjunct, with the apostrophe before it in the 
singular, and after it in the plural ; thus, Singular, father - 
in-law's, son-in-law's, &c. ; Plural, father s-in- laws' , sons-in- 
laws', &c. 

21. Compound nouns, in which the principal word is put last, 
regularly terminate in s in the plural ; as, man-servant, man- 
servants ; fellow -citizen, fellow -citizens, &c. ; and their posses- 
sive is formed in the same manner as that of other nouns of like 
termination. 

22. Most collective nouns admit both the singular and plural 
forms ; as, school, schools ; meeting, meetings, &c. 

23. There are a few of the collective nouns, which have the form 
of but one of the numbers, and always a plural signification and 
construction ; as, People, folks, rabble, peasantry, antipodes, 
public, populace, mankind, literati, minutim, &c. 

24. Some of the abstract nouns have the possessive case ; as, 
«< For righteous?iess' sake;" " Virtue's reward." And a few of 
them are sometimes used in the plural number. Most of them, 
however, have only the nominative and objective cases singular. 

25. Participial nouns never have the possessive case, and but 
few of them are used in the plural number. For examples of 
the declension of the various nouns, see the Chart of Nouns. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

11 Charles reads in his sister s book J 7 
Charles is a noun, because it is the name of a person ; proper, 
because it is the particular name of an individual ; of 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

the third person, spoken of; singular number, it ex- 
presses but one ; masculine gender, it denotes a male ; 
in the nominative case, and governs the verb reads, 
according to Rule II., which says, " The nominative 
case governs the verb in person and number." 

reads. . .is a verb, because it signifies to do something. 

in is a preposition, which is a word placed before nouns and 

pronouns, to connect them with other words, and to show 
the relation between them. 

his is a personal pronoun. 

sister s. .is a noun, &c. ; common, because it is the name of a sort, 
or class ; of the third person, spoken of; singular num- 
ber, it expresses but one ; feminine gender, it denotes a 
female ; in the possessive case, it expresses the relation 
of property ; and is declined thus, — Nom. sister ; Poss. 
sister's (with the apostrophe before the s, because it is in 
the singular number) ; Obj. sister; and is governed by 
book, according to Rule XL, which says, " A noun or 
a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name 
of the thing possessed." 

book, . . .is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
and in the objective case, governed by the preposition 
in, according to Rule XIV., which says, " Prepositions 
govern the objective case." 



[New York is the largest city in America. 

Saturday is the last day of the week. 

January is the first month of the year. 

I John saw these things, and heard them. 

Children, obey your parents. 

Saul the son of Kish, was the first king of Israel. 

The children of Israel left Egypt under the guidance of 
Moses ; they received the law at Mount Sinai, and so- 
journed forty years in the wilderness of Arabia. 

The first twelve emperors of Rome are distinguished by 
the name of the Caesars. The first of them was Julius 
Caesar, a man equally illustrious as a general, a historian, 



20 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

and an orator. He was alike the Alexander, the Demos- 
thenes, and the Xenophon of his age. 

The meekness of Moses, the patience of Job, and the 
wisdom of Solomon, have been celebrated in every age. 

The enemy was cunning, but his cunning was nothing 
to that of our commander-in-chief. 

Attorneys write deeds and mortgages. 

A sheep's flesh is called mutton. 

The wife of a duke is called duchess. 

Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. 

Several strange phenomena have been observed this 
year. 

The river is about one hundred feet deep. 

Two flagstaffs were shot off, during the battle. 

There are twelve cantos in the poem. 

From these data he computed the area. 

Parents' anxiety for their children's welfare is very 
great. 

The ladies' behavior during their staying at school, was 
very commendable. 

Farmers' club. Merchants' ledger. Ladies' book. 
Mechanics' institute. Carpenters' shop. Carpenters' 
tools.. New- Year's gift. Gentlemen's ordinary. Sheeps' 
pasture. Editor's table. 

Purpose is the edge and point of character ; it is the 
superscription on the letter of talent. Character without 
it, is blunt and torpid ; genius without it, is bullion, splen- 
did and uncirculating. 

QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF NOUNS. 

1. What is a Noun? 

2. How many properties have nouns ? Name them. 

3. Into how many general classes are nouns divided ? 
What are they called ? 

4. What is a Proper noun ? 

5. In what number only, are proper nouns used ? 

6. How are common nouns used as proper nouns, to 
represent individuality ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

I. What is a Common noun ? 

8. When does a proper name become common ? Give 
examples. 

9. Name the particular classes which the common nouns 
include. 

10. What is a Compound noun ? 

II. What is a Collective noun ? 

12. What is an Abstract noun ? Give examples. 

13. What is a Participial noun ? Give examples. 

14. How is the possessive case of nouns generally 
formed ? 

15. When the nominative plural ends in s, how is the 
possessive plural formed ? 

16. How do nouns ending in y, in the singular, with 
no other vowel in the same syllable, form the plural ? 
Give examples. 

17. How are nouns ending infe or/ made plural ? Give 
examples. 

18. How do nouns ending in z, s, sk, and ch soft, form 
their plural ? 

19. How do those nouns which are alike in both num- 
bers, form their possessive ? 

20. How is the plural of such compound nouns as 
father-in-law, son-in-law, &c, formed ? And how is their 
possessive formed ? 

21. How do those compound nouns having the princi- 
pal word put last, terminate in the plural ? And how is 
their possessive formed ? 

22. Do any of the collective nouns admit of both the 
singular and plural forms ? 

23. What is said of such collective nouns as people, 
folks, rabble, &c. ? 

24. Have abstract nouns a possessive case, and a plu- 
ral number ? Which do most of them have ? 

25. Do participial nouns ever have a possessive case ? 
And are any of them ever used in the plural number ? 



GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

The properties of Nouns and Pronouns, are 
Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

PERSON. 

1. Person, in grammar, is that property of 
nouns and pronouns that distinguishes the 
speaker, the hearer or person spoken to, and 
the person or thing spoken of. 

2. There are three persons • the. first, the 
second, and the third. 

3. The first person is that which denotes 
the writer or speaker ; as, " I, Millard Fill- 
more, President, &c, do hereby declare and 
proclaim/' &c. " We must go home and take 
our books with us' ' 

4. The second person is that which denotes 
the hearer or person spoken to ; as, " Son, 
give me thy heart;" " James and John, study 
your lessons, you are both idle." 

5. The third person is that which denotes 
the person or thing spoken of; as, " Harriet 
has gone to visit her friends ;" " George stu- 
dies his lessons well;" "Meekness controls 
angry passions" 

6. Persons belong to nouns, pronouns, and 
verbs. 

NUMBER. 

7. Number denotes one object, or more 
objects than one. 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

8. There are, in the English language, two 
numbers ; the Singular, and the Plural. 

9. The singular number expresses but one 
object; as, boy, book, virtue. 

10. The plural number expresses more 
objects than one ; as, boys, books, virtues. 

11. Numbers belong to nouns, pronouns, 
and verbs, to denote whether unity or plu- 
rality is meant. 

CLASSES, BY MODES OF NUMBER. 

Nouns, with respect to the different modes 
of forming their plural number, are divided 
into Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

I. Regular nmms are those which form 
their plural by adding s or es to the singular; 
as, book, books; tax, taxes, &c. The plural 
of most nouns is formed in this manner. 

II. Irregular nouns are those which gener- 
ally form their plural by a change of the 
singular or primitive word; as, man, men; 
foot, feet ; life, lives ; fly, flies, &c. 

III. Defective nouns are those which have 
the form of but one of the numbers. Some 
of them, from the nature of the things which 
they express, have no plural ; as, John, gold, 
wheat, pitch, sloth, pride, &c. And others, no 
singular ; as, tongs, scissors, alms, &c. 

I. REGULAR NOUNS. 
The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to 
the singular; as tree, trees ; hand, hands; dove, doves ; face, 
faces ; thought, thoughts. 



24 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1. — But when the noun singular ends in s, x, sh, or ch 
soft, the plural is formed by adding es to the singular, and 
making it a separate syllable ; as, gas, gases ; miss, misses ; 
fox, foxes ; dish, dishes ; fish, fishes ; church, churches ; peach, 
peaches. 

Obs. 2. — Nouns ending in other consonants, including ch hard, 
except some which end in f, or fe, form their plural by adding 
* only to the singular ; as, tub, tubs ; almanac, almanacs ; chief, 
chiefs ; plaintiff \ plaintiffs ; staff, staffs, (military terms) ; flag- 
staff, flagstaffs ; monarch, monarchs. 

Obs. 3. — Most nouns ending in vowels or vowel sounds, form 
their plural regularly, as follows : — 

Nouns ending in a, e, silent u, and w, are made plural by 
adding 5 to the singular ; as, era, eras ; spade, spades ; bureau, 
bureaus ; swallow, swalloivs 

Obs. 4. — Nouns, which end in o, preceded by another vowel, 
form their plural by adding s only ; as, folio, folios ; embryo, 
embryos ; tattoo, tattoos. 

Obs. 5. — Common nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, 
sometimes form the plural by adding es to the singular ; as, car- 
go, cargoes ; hero, heroes ; negro, negroes ; mulatto, mulattoes * 
potato, potatoes. And sometimes by adding s only; as, canto, 
cantos ; quarto, quartos ; duodecimo, duodecimos ; memento, me- 
mentos. 

Proper names form the plural, most commonly, by adding s 
only ; as The Ciceros ; The Catos. 

There are some others of this termination, concerning which 
there is no uniformity in usage. 

Obs. 6. — Nouns ending in y, preceded by another vowel, form 
their plural by adding s only ; as, day, days ; key, keys ; money, 
moneys ; chimney, chimneys ; attorney, attorneys ; valley, 
valleys, 

Obs. 7. — Compounds formed of a noun and an adjective, or of 
two nouns connected by a preposition, generally form the plural 
regularly, by adding s to the^rsf or principal word, as follows : — 

- % 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

Singular. Plural. 

Father-in-law, Fathers-in-law. 

Mother-in-law, Mothers-in-law. 

Son-in-law, Sons-in-law. 

Daughter-in-law, Daughters-in-law. 

Court-martial, Courts-martial. 

Commander-in-chief, Commanders-in-chief. 

Aid-de-camp, Aids-de-camp. 

Sergeant-at-arms, Sergeants-at-arms. 

Obs. 8. — Compounds in which the principal word is put last, 
and those ending in ful, regularly terminate in s in the plural ; 
as follows : — 

Singular. Plural. 

Man-servant, Man-servants. 

Maid-servant, Maid-servants. 

Fellow-citizen, Fellow-citizens. 

Fellow-servant, Fellow-servants. 

Spoonful, Spoonfuls. 

Handful, Handfuls. 

Pailful, Pailful?. 

Obs. 9. — Proper names have the plural only when they refer to 
a race or family ; as, The Stuarts, The Edwards, The Camp- 
bells ; or, to a number of individuals of the same name ; as, The 
four Georges, the twelve Ccesars, the two Scipios. 

Obs. 10. — In expressing the plural of a proper name, to which 
a title is prefixed, thereby forming one complex name, the title, 
and not the name, is most frequently varied to form the plural ; 
as, The Misses Hall ; the Messrs. Hall. The present usage, 
however, is very unsettled and conflicting, for there are good 
writers and respectable grammarians that pluralize the name, 
and not the title ; as, the Miss Halls, the Mr. Halls ; and there 
are some others who pluralize both the title and the name ; as, 
The Misses Halls, the Messrs. Halls. 

When the names of the persons addressed are different, the 
titles, and not the names, are always pluralized; as, Misses Lind 
and Parodi ; Drs. Francis and Mott ; Messrs. Hall and King. 

Obs. 11. — To denote the plural of characters, an apostrophe 



26 



GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



and an s are used, as in the possessive case of nouns ; thus, Two 
a's, three b's, four g's, five 2's, six 20's, &c. 



II. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



Obs. 1. — The following nouns form their plural irregularly in 
different words ; as, 



Sing. 


Plural. 




Sing. 


Plural. 


Man, 


Men. 




Foot, 


Feet. 


Woman, 


Women. 




Tooth, 


Teeth. 


Child, 


Children. 




Goose, 


Geese. 


Ox, 


Oxen. 




Mouse, 


Mice. 


Brother, 


Brethren or 


brothers. 


Louse, 


Lice. 



Obs. 2. — Compound nouns terminating in man, woman, &c, 
form their plural in the same manner as the simple nouns ; as, 
alderman, aldermen; statesman, statesmen; washer-woman, 
washer-women ; dormouse, dormice. 

Obs. 3. — The following nouns have two forms of the plural, each 
with a different meaning ; as, 

Sing. Plural. 

Brother 5 Mothers, . . . Sons of the same parents. 



t brethren, ...Members of the same society or church 

-Q. C dies, Stamp for coining. 

C dice, Cubes for gaming. 

Fish,.. 



Genius, . 



Index, 



Cow, , 
Sow,. 



•i 



gaming. 

( fishes, When number is meant. [of fish." 

\ fish, When quantity is meant ; as "a barrel 

C geniuses,. . .Persons of great mental powers. 

C genii, Fabulous spirits. 

C indexes,. . . .Pointers, or tables of contents. 
(. indices, . . . .Algebraic exponents. 

relating to number. 

pease, m tne mass ; as, " a dish of pease." 

C pennies, .... Separate coins ; as, " six pennies." 

C pence, Value in computation ; as, " sixpence in 

C cows, When number is meant. [silver." 

C kine, When the species is described. 

sows, When number is meant. 

swine, When the species is described. 



p C peas, Distinct seeds ; re 

C pease, In the mass ; as, ' 

Penny, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



27 



Obs. 4. — Nouns adopted without alteration, from foreign lan- 
guages, generally retain their original plural, as follows : — 



Sing. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Plural. 


Addendum, 


Addenda. 


Ignis fatuus, 


Ignes fatui. 


Animalculum 


, Animalcula. 


Lamina, 


Laminae. 


Aphis, 


Aphides. 


Larva, 


Larvae. 


Appendix, 


r Appendixes, or 
I Appendices. 


Legumen, 


Legumena. 


Magus, 


Magi. 


Apex, 
Arcanum, 


Apices. 
Arcana 


Medium, 


c Media, or 
( Mediums. 


Automaton, 


Automata. 


Metamorphosis, Metamorphoses 


Axis, 


Axes. 


Monsieur, 


Messieurs. 


Bandit, or ^ 
Banditto, ) 




Nebula, 


Nebulae. 


Banditti. 


Oasis, 


Oases. 


Basis, 


Bases. 


Parenthesis, 


Parentheses. 


Calx, 


Calces. 


Phasis, 


Phases. 


Cherub, 


Cherubim. 


Phalanx 


Phalanges. 


Crisis, 


Crises. 


Phenomenon, 


Phenomena. 


Criterion, 


Criteria. 


Radius, 


Radii. 


Datum, 


Data. 


Radix, 


Radices. 


Desideratum, 


Desiderata. 


Saliva, 


Salivae. 


Dogma, 


c Dogmata, or 
( Dogmas. 


Seraph, 


C Seraphim, or 
C Seraphs. 


Effluvium, 


Effluvia. 


Stamen, 


Stamina. 


Ellipsis, 


Ellipses. 


Stimulus, 


Stimuli. 


Emphasis, 


Emphases. 


Stratum, 


Strata. 


Erratum, 


Errata. 


Thesis, 


Theses. 


Focus, 


Foci. 


Tumulus, 


Tumuli. 


Formula, 


Formulae. 


Virtuoso, 


Virtuosi. 


Genus, 


Genera. 


Vortex, 


Vortices. 


Hypothesis, 


Hypotheses. 







Obs. 5. — Some nouns ending in /and fe, are irregularly made 
plural by changing those terminations into ves ; as, beef, beeves ; 
leaf, leaves ; loaf, loaves ; sheaf, sheaves ; thief, thieves ; calf, 
calves; wharf, wharves; wolf wolves; half, halves; wife, 
wives ; knife, knives, &c., except fife, and strife, which are reg- 



28 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

ular, and make fifes and strifes in the plural. Staff, (a walking- 
stick or cudgel,) forms its plural irregularly in staves. 

Obs. 6. — Common nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
change the y into i, and add es to form the plural ; as, lady, 
ladies ; fly, flies ; city, cities; cherry, cherries, &c. But pro- 
per names form their plural regularly by adding s only, without 
changing the y ; as, the Henrys; the Tullys ; the Ptolemy s ; 
the Plinys. Some grammarians, however, recommend the irregu- 
lar form. 

Obs. 7. — Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
swine, species, series, apparatus, trout, salmon, shad, &c. The 
singular and plural of such nouns are distinguished by having an 
article, or a definitive prefixed to them ; as, a deer, one deer, this 
deer, that deer, &c. ; two deer, these deer, those deer, &c. ; one 
cannon, twenty cannon, &c. 

III. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
Plural only. 

Obs. 1. — Usage has, in English, as well as in other languages, 
denied the form of the singular number to some nouns ; as, alms, 
annals, ashes, antipodes, ides, calends, archives, goods, (mer- 
chandize,) billiards, clothes, gallows, news, means, amends, 
customs, manners, letters, (literature,) pains, riches, thanks, 
remains, &c. The following are those which are expressive of 
what nature or art has made double, or plural ; as, lungs, bowels, 
entrails, bellows, breeches, compasses, drawers, nippers, panta- 
loons, pincers, tongs, scissors, shears, snuffers, ti~owsers, &c. 

Obs. 2. — The proper names of groups of islands and ranges of 
mountains, may also be classed with those nouns which have no 
singular ; as, the Cordilleras, the Azores, the Hebrides, the Alps, 
the Appenines, the Andes. 

Obs. 3. — It is common to denote many of those nouns, which 
designate things consisting of two parts, and being the production 
of art, by using the word pair ; as, a pair of bellows, a pair of 
scissors, a, pair of pantaloons, &c. 

Obs. 4. — The names of those sciences ending in ics, as ethics, 
mathematics, metaphysics, tactics, mechanics, statistics, pncu- 



ETYMOLOGY. 29 

matics, optics, &c», and also, alms, means, amends, wages, pains, 
and riches, are sometimes construed as singular, but more fre- 
quently as plural nouns. 

Singular only. 
Obs. 5. — As we have some nouns which have no singular num- 
ber, so, on the other hand, we have many more without a plural ; 
some, from the nature of the things expressed, others by mere 
usage, as follows : — 

1. All Proper names are singular, except when used in the 
sense of common nouns ; as when we say, the Ccesars, the Alex- 
anders, the Bonapartes, &c, in which we figuratively include 
all those who resemble them in their valor, conduct, virtue, 
vices, &c. 

2. Nouns which denote things determined in quantity by weight 
or measure ; as, tea, sugar, wheat, oil, wine, &c, unless they ex- 
press varieties or different sorts; as, " All wines contain alcho- 
hol ;" " The teas of the Canton company," &c. 

3. The names of metals ; as, gold, silver, lead, iron, &c. 

4. The names of abstract or moral qualities ; as, hardness, 
softness, prudence, charity, justice, chastity, pride, envy, &c, 
Some of this class of nouns are rendered plural, when varieties or 
different kinds are mentioned; as, varieties, gravities, chari- 
ties, &c. x. 

Obs. 6. — As the names of some of the sciences, such as ethics, 
optics, &c.,have no singular form of termination, so there are 
also others that have no plural ; as, geography, astronomy, 
astrology, arithmetic, logic, anatomy, surgery, chemistry, bot- 
any, &c. 

Obs. 7. — Some nouns are occasionally used in a singular form 
with a plural signification ; as, horse, foot, cavalry, cannon, sail, 
head, pair, dozen, brace, couple, hundred, thousand, &c. ; thus, 
" Fifty horse, and five hundred foot ;" " two thousand cavalry ;" 
" fifty cannon ;" " twenty sail in the line ;" " two hundred head 
of cattle for supplies." 

GENDER. 

12. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

13. There are commonly reckoned only 



80 



three genders, the Masculine, the Feminine, 
and the Neuter. 

14. The Masculine gender is that which 
denotes animals of the male kind ; as, man, 
boy, lion. 

15. The Feminine gender is that which 
denotes animals of the female kind ; as, 
woman, girl, lioness. 

16. The Neuter gender is that which de- 
notes things that are neither male nor female ; 
as, pen, ink, paper. 

Obs. — Such nouns as can be equally applied both to males and 
females, are said to be of the common gender ; as, friend, child, 
parent, cousin, bird, &c. „ 

17. Genders belong to nouns and pronouns. 

The English language has three modes of distinguishing the two 
sexes, namely, 

1. By different words; as, 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


King, 


Queen. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Bull, 


Cow. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Bullock, or Steer 


Heifer. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Cock, 


Hen. 


Nephew, 


Neice. 


Dog, 


Bitch 


Ram, 


Ewe. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Songster, 


Songstress. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Sloven, 


Slut. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Son, 


Daughter. 


Friar, 


Nun. 


Stag, 


Hind. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Hart, 


Roe. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 





ETYMOLOGY. 






2. By a difference of termination 


, as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Margrave, 


Margravine. 


Administrator 


, Administratrix. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Adulterer, 


Adulteress. 


Mayor 


Mayoress. 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Author, 


Authoress. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Bridegroom, 


Bride. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Prior, 


Prioress. 


Chanter, 


Chantress. 


Prophet, 


Prophetess. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Protector, 


Protectress. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess. 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Sorcerer. 


Sorceress. 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Sultan, 


( Sultaness, or 
C Sultana. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 




Executor, 


Executrix. 


Spectator, 


Spectatress. 


Giant, 


Giantess. 


Testator, 


Testatrix. 


Governor, 


Governess. 


Tiger, 


Tigress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Traitor, 


Traitress. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Tutor, 


Tutoress. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Viscount, 


Viscountess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Votary, 


Votaress. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


>Yidower, 


Widow. 



31 



3. By prefixing a word denoting the sex ; as, 

A cocAr-sparrow, A ^e?i-sparrow. 

A man-servant, A m<m?-servant. 

A he-goat, A she-goat. 

A he-hear, A she-hear. 

A male-child, A female -child. 

JV/a/e-descendants, inmate-descendants. 

Obs. 1. — The names of all things inanimate, or destitute of sex, 
are, in English, always of the neuter gender. But some nouns, 
naturally neuter, are figuratively regarded as being either in 



32 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

the masculine or the feminine gender ; as, when we say of the 
sun, "He is setting :" and of a ship, "She sails well." 

Obs. 2. — It should be remembered, that this distinction of the 
genders of inanimate things, is chiefly for the purpose of properly 
substituting for them, when necessary, pronouns of the • same 
gender. 

Obs. 3. — In general, inanimate things, or abstract qualities, 
that convey an idea of strength, firmness, power or energy, are 
figuratively spoken of as being masculine ; as, the Sun, Time, 
Death, Love, Winter, &c. Thus, 

11 The Sun his orient beams had shed." 

" The Jlngel of Death spread his wings on the blast, 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd." 

u Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope." 

Obs. 4. — On the contrary, things which are considered as beau- 
tiful, weak or prolific, or that are more of a passive than of an 
active nature, are generally spoken of as being feminine ; as, 
The Moon, Earth, city, ship, nature, spring, virtue, charity, 
wisdom, &c. Thus, " And the Moon shall not cease, her light to 
shine." " And the Earth shall be shaken out of her place," 
" Wisdom hath builded her house ; she hath hewn out her seven 
pillars." 

CASE. 

18. Case is the state or position of nouns 
and pronouns which denotes their relations 
to other words. 

19. In English, there are three cases, the 
Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. 

20. The nominative case simply expresses 
the name of a thing, or the subject of the 
verb ; as, " The boy plays ;" " the girls learn ;" 
"/walk; they mm; the book is torn." 



ETYMOLOGY. 33 

Obs. — To find the nominative case, ask the question, Who ? 
Which ? What ? and the word that answers the question is the 
nominative case ; as, " Who plays ?" Answer, the boy ; boy is, 
therefore, the nominative case. 

21. The possessive case expresses the rela- 
tion of property or possession ; as, " Edwin's 
knife ;" " virtue's reward f " my book/' 

Obs. 1. — The possessive case of nouns, is generally formed in 
the singular number, by adding an apostrophe and the letter s, 
thus 's, to the nominative ; as, " Mary's ring ; " John's hat." 

Obs. 2. — When the plural nominative ends in s, the apostrophe 
only is added ; as, " On eagles' wings ; " the drapers' company ;" 

Obs. 8. — But when the plural nominative does not end in s, the 
possessive is formed in the same manner as it is in the singular, 
thus, marts, men's ; child's, children's, &c. 

Obs. 4. — Sometimes, also, when the singular ends in s, ss, nee, 
or any other letter sounding like s, or z, the apostrophic s is not 
added, chiefly to prevent an unpleasant succession of hissing 
sounds; as, " Moses' rod ;" " for goodness' sake;" "for con- 
science' sake." 

22. The objective case expresses the object 
of an action, or of a relation, and generally 
follows an active-transitive verb, or a prepo- 
sition ; as, " I know George, he went to school 
with me" 

23. Cases belong only to nouns and pro- 
nouns. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The declension of a noun, is the regular 
arrangement of its numbers and cases, in the 
following manner : — 



34 



GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



Sing. Plural. 

Norn. Mother, Mothers, 
Poss. Mother's, Mothers 5 , 
Obj. Mother; Mothers. 

For other examples of the Declension of 
Nouns, see the Chart of Nouns. 



Sing. Plural. 

Norn. Man, Men, 
Poss. Man's, Men's, 
Obj. Man; Men. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 
"A man's life is short" 

A. ... .is an indefinite article, and belongs to man's. 

man's* is a noun, because it is the name of a person ; common, it 
is the name of a sort or class ; of the third person, it is 
spoken of ; singular number, it expresses but one ; mas- 
culine gender, it denotes a male ; in the possessive case, 
it expresses the relation of property or possession, and is 
governed by the noun life, by Rule XL, which says, " A 
noun or a pronoun, in the possessive case, is governed by 
the name of the thing possessed." 

life. . . is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
and is the nominative case to the verb is. 

is is a verb. 

short, .is an adjective. 



Singular. 
My book's cover is blue. 
This sheep's fleece is heavy. 
A house was burned. 
A man shot a wolf. 
New York is a large city. 

That table's leg is broken. 
A loaf and a fish. 
He has a deer's skin. 
A mouse is in the trap. 
This house has but one chim- 
ney. 



Plural. 

Our books' covers are blue. 

These sheeps' fleeces are light. 

Ten houses were burned. 

The men shot several wolves. 

Newark and Brooklyn are 
cities. 

Those tables' legs are broken. 

Five loaves and two fishes. 

They have two deers' skins. 

Several mice are in the traps. 

These houses have four chim- 
neys. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



85 



Singular. 
A knife's blade is sharp. 
This box's lid is nailed. 
My horse's hoof is injured. 
He walks with a staff. 
His foot was frozen. 
He has killed a beef and a 

calf. 
His sister-in-law's child. 
That fly's wing is torn off. 
That was a phenomenon. 
An ox's horn was broken. 
There was but one fife in the 

band. 
It was a gentleman's hat. 
A farmer's and a mechanic's 

house. 
An apprentice's indenture. 
One day's later news. 



Plural. 
The knives' blades are sharp. 
These boxes' lids are tight. 
Their horses' hoofs are sound. 
He walks with two staves. 
His feet were frozen. 
He has killed two beeves and 

three calves. [ren. 

Their sisters-in-law's child- 
Those flies' wings are torn off. 
Those were phenomena, [en. 
The oxen's horns were brok- 
There were three fifes in the 

band. 
These were gentlemen's hats. 
The Farmers and Mechanics' 

Bank. 
The apprentices' association. 
Four days' later news. 



QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF "THE PROPERTIES OF 
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS." 

1. What is Person, in Grammar ? 

2. How many persons are there ? Name them. 

3. What is the first person ? 

4. What is the second person ? 

5. What is the third person ? 

6. To what parts of speech do persons belong ? 

7. What is Number ? 

8. How many numbers are there ? 

9. What does the singular number express ? 

1 0. What does the plural number express ? 

11. To what parts of speech do numbers belong ? and 
what to denote ? 

12. What is Gender ? 

13. How many genders are there ? Name them. 

14. What is the masculine gender ? 

15. What is the feminine gender ? 



36 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

16. What is the neuter gender ? 

17. To what parts of speech do genders belong T 

18. What is Case? 

19. How many cases are there ? Name them. 

20. What does the nominative case express ? 

21. What does the possessive case express ? 

22. What does the objective case express ? 

23. To what parts of speech do cases belong ? 



PRONOUNS. 

1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun ; as, " the man is happy ; he is benevo- 
lent ; he is useful." 

Obs.— The noun which a pronoun represents, is called its ante- 
cedent, because it usually precedes it. 

2. Pronouns, like the nouns which they 
represent, have four properties, namely, Per- 
son, Number, Gender and Case. 

Obs. — Pronouns are of the same person, number, and gender, as 
their antecedents. 

CLASSES. 

3. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; 

Personal, Relative and Interrogative. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

4. A personal pronoun is that which shows 
by its form, of what person it is. 

5. There are five personal pronouns, 
namely, I, thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, 
tve, ye or you, they. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

6. Pronouns have three persons, and each 
of the persons has two numbers, as follows : 

Singular. 

lis the first person, and denotes the writer 
or speaker. 

Thou or you is the second person, and de- 
notes the person addressed or spoken to. 

He, she or it is the third person, and denotes 
the person or thing spoken of. 

Plural. 

We is the first person, and denotes the 
writer or speaker, and those associated with 
him. 

Ye or you is the second person. 

They is the third person. 

7. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases ; 
the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Ob- 
jective. 

8. The genders of personal pronouns, are 
distinguished by different words, in the third 
person singular only ; as, he is masculine ; 
she is feminine ; and it is neuter. 

Obs. — The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, 
have no variety of form significant of sex ; the persons speaking 
and spoken to, being considered as present, and their sex known, 
need no distinction of gender in the pronouns ; but the third per- 
son, being considered as absent, and in many respects unknown, 
requires it to be designated. 



38 



GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 



The Personal Pronouns are thus declined : — 



Persons. 


Cases, 


Singular. Plural. 


First. 


Nom. 


1 We, 




Poss. 


My, or mine, Our, or ours, 




Obj. 


Me, Us. 


Sec. 


Nom. 


Thou, Ye, or you. 




Poss. 


Thy, or thine, Your, or yours. 




Obj. 


Thee, You. 

Masculine Gender. 


Third. 


Nom. 


He, They, 




Poss. 


His, Their, or theirs, 




Obj. 


Him, Them. 

Feminine Gender. 


Third, 


, Nom. 


She, They, 




Poss. 


Her, or hers, Their, or theirs, 




Obj. 


Her, Them. 

Neuter Gender. 


Third. 


Nom. 


It, They, 




Poss. 


Its, Their, or theirs, 




Obj. 


It, Them. 



9. Most of the personal pronouns, have two forms of the posses- 
sive case. Those of the first form are always placed before the 
nouns expressed, which govern them; as, "This is my book ;" 
"that is her pen," &c. But when the governing noun is under- 
stood, or is so placed as not immediately to follow the pronoun, 
all of them, except his and its, change their terminations, making 
those of the second form ; thus, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, 
and theirs, each of which is the two-fold representative of the 
possessor, and the name of the thing possessed, in two different 
cases at the same time; as, "This book is mine;" (my book;) 
that pe n is hers ;" (her pen ;) &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

Obs. 1. — My and mine, thy and thine, her and hers, our and 
ours, your and yours, their and theirs, are mutually convertible 
into each other, and precisely synonymous, each with its fellow, 
and also with the possessive nouns which they respectively repre- 
sent, differing only in form, and in their respective positions in 
relation to the nouns that govern them, as the following examples 
will show : — 

mL r S XT. ( That is Jane's book. 

The possessive before the noun ; as, < 

( That is her book. 

mi x-. xt. C That book is Jane's. 

The possessive after the noun ; as, \ ^^ 

( That book is hers. 

Obs. 2. — ./Ifme and thine, instead of my and My, were formerly 
used before words beginning with a vowel or a silent A ; as, " Blot 
out all mine iniquities." " If thine eye offend thee," &c. 

This usage is now obsolete, or confined chiefly to the poetic and 
scripture styles. 

10. The plural forms you, and your or yours, are now by uni- 
versal usage, except in the solemn or poetic style, substituted 
for thou, thy or thine, and thee in the singular number, and con- 
tribute greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style of commu- 
nication. 

Obs. 1. — In all cases, you, though applied to but one person, 
must have a plural verb; as, " you were," "were you?" not 
" you was," " was you ?" It also requires the plural form of the 
possessive pronoun ; as, " You are a good boy, and, therefore I 
shall grant you your request ;" — not thy request. 

The custom of thus addressing a person in the plural form, orig- 
inated in courtesy or obsequiousness. 

Obs. 2. — The Society of Friends, or Quakers, consider it too for- 
mal to say you to one person, and, therefore, in all such cases, 
they say thou or thee. But they often say thee, when they should 
say thou ; as, Thee did it, and thee said it," which are solecisms, 
and should be " thou didst it, and thou saidst it." 

11. His always has the same form in the possessive, whether 
used before or after the noun ; as, M This is his book," or " this 
book is his." 

12. Her is the same in the possessive and objective cases. When 



40 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

it is joined to a noun, it is in the possessive ; as, " Give Jane her 
book;" and when standing alone, it is in the objective,* as, 
" Give the book to her" 

13. The prououn It is always of the same form, in the nomina- 
tive and objective cases ; in the possessive case, it never has but 
one form, namely its, both before and after the noun which gov- 
erns it. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

14. The compound personal pronouns are 
formed, in the first and second persons, by 
adding the word self, and its plural selves, to 
the simple possessives of the first and second 
persons of the personal pronouns ; thus, my- 
self, ourselves ; and thyself, or yourself, your- 
selves. 

15. And in the third person, they are 
formed by adding self and selves to the objec- 
tive case of those of the third person; as, 
himself, herself, itself, and themselves. 

Obs. 1. — In the first and second persons, they express emphasis 
and opposition ; as, /did it myself ; you will hurt yourself, that 
is, not another. In the third person, they form a Reflective pro- 
noun, and are used when an action is reflected, or thrown back 
upon the agent, denoting that the agent, and the object of the 
action are identical ; as, in the sentence, " Cato killed him," de- 
notes that Cato killed some other person; but, when we say, 
" Cato killed himself," it shows that the agent and the object of 
the action are the same. 

Obs. 2. — All the compound personal pronouns are alike in the 
nominative and objective cases of the same person and number. 
They always want the possessive. In construction, they must 
always agree in person, number, and gender, with the noun or 
pronoun which they emphasize ; as, "John injured himself;" 
"Mary consoled herself;" " We hurt ourselves by vain rage." 



ETV'MOLOGY. 



41 



16. We and our self are used instead of- /and myself, by kings, 
emperors, editors of newspapers, and generally by authors. They 
include the councillors by whose advice kings and emperors are 
supposed to act ; as, " We, Nicholas, autocrat of all the Rus- 
sias." "What then remains? Our self." An expression which 
Pope ludicrously applies to the king of the dunces. And with re- 
gard to editors and authors, we and ourself imply that they are 
expressing opinions not exclusively their own. 

Obs. 1. — Own is frequently added to the simple possessive pro- 
nouns in both numbers, for the purpose of expressing the rela- 
tion of property or possession more emphatically ; thus, my own, 
thy own, his own, your own, their own, &c. ; as, " I live in my 
own house ;" they spend their own money." 

Obs. 2. — Own is also sometimes added to nouns in the posses- 
sive case, to denote possession in a more emphatic manner ; as, 
" That is John's own money which he spends." 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are thus declined : — 
Persons. Cases. Singular. Plural. 

First. Norn. Myself, or ourself, Ourselves. 

Poss. — . 

Obj. Myself, or ourself, Ourselves. 

Sec. Norn. Thyself, or yourself, Yourselves. 

Poss. 

Obj. Thyself, or yourself, Yourselves. 

Masculine Gender. 

Third. Norn. Himself, Themselves. 

Poss. 

Obj. Himself, Themselves. 

Feminine Gender. 

Third. Nom. Herself, Themselves. 

Poss. 

Obj. Herself, Themselves. 



42 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

'Neuter Gender. 

Third. Nom. Itself, Themselves. 

Poss. 



Obj. Itself, Themselves. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 
" I am his friend, and he is mine? 

I is a pronoun , which is a word used instead of a noun; 

personal, its form shows of what person it is ; of the first 
person, it denotes the speaker ; singular number, it ex- 
presses but one ; and is declined thus, Nom. I, Poss. Mine, 
Obj. Me ; it is in the nominative case, and governs the verb 
am. 

am. . . .is a neuter verb, from the verb to be. 

his is a personal pronoun ; of the third person, spoken of; 

singular number ; masculine gender, it denotes a male ; 
and is declined thus, Nom. he, Poss. his, Obj. him: it is in 
the possessive case, because it expresses the relation of 
property or possession, and is governed by friend, accord- 
ing to Rule XL, which says, " A noun or a pronoun in 
the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing 
possessed." 

friend is a common noun, because it is the name of a sort or 
class of persons. 

and. . . .is a conjunction. 

he is a pronoun, which is a word used instead of a noun ; 

personal, it shows, by its form, of what person it is ; of 
the third person, singular number, masculine gender, 
and is the nominative case to the verb is. 

is is a verb, it signifies to be. 

mine... is & personal pronoun, of the first person, singular num- 
ber, and in the possessive case, and is the two-fold repre- 
sentative of I and friend, and is governed by friend under 
stood, according to Rule XL, (which repeat as before.) 

I will teach thee. He teaches us. She respects him. 
He loves her. They will instruct you. We command 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

them. I told it to him. You are controlled by yonr 
interest. Thy friend salutes thee. This book is mine, 
and that is thine, and the other one is hers. You may 
take yours along with you. Did he hurt himself ? Will 
they not injure themselves ? She will take care of her- 
self. You, yourself are to blame for all this. We should 
try to help ourselves. They willl take care of themselves. 
This is my own book. He writes with his own pen. Let 
them take care of their own affairs. Your character can- 
not be essentially injured, except by your own acts. 
When it snows it freezes. It is very cold. " No man 
liveth unto himself." " Take heed to yourself." " In 
taking heed to ourselves, we must take heed to our 
thoughts, words, and actions." " They consecrated them- 
selves wholly to God." 

II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

17. Relative Pronouns are those which re- 
late to some word or phrase going before, 
which is thence called the antecedent ; as, 
" The man is happy who lives virtuously." 

18. The relative pronouns are who, which, 
that, and what. 

19. Who is applied to persons only ; as, 
" He is a friend who is faithful in adversity;" 
" He who preserves me, to whom I owe my 
being, whose I am, and whom I serve is 
eternal." 

20. Which is applied to irrational animals 
and inanimate things; as, "The bird which 
sung so sweetly has flown ;" " This is the 
tree which produces no fruit." 



44 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

21. That, as a relative, is indiscriminately 
applied to persons, animals, and things, and 
admits no variation ; it is commonly used to 
prevent the too frequent repetition of who 
and which ; as, " Happy is the man who find- 
eth wisdom, and the man that getteth under- 
standing;" "The horse that he stole was not 
mine." "Modesty is a quality that highly 
adorns a woman." 

22. What is a kind of compound relative, 
including both the antecedent and the rela- 
tive, and is equivalent to that which, or those 
(things) which ; as, " James got what he 
w T anted," that is to say, that (thing), or those 
(things) which he wanted ; or thus, 

f what 

James got J that (thing) which .he wanted. 

or ' 

w those (things) which j 

23. Who and that are used in the first, 
second, and third persons. 

24. Which and what are used in the third 
person only. 

25. Who, in declension, changes its form 
in the possessive and the objective case, but 
is alike in both numbers; as, Nom. who, Poss. 
whose, Obj. whom. 

26. Wfiich, that, and what, are alike in the 
nominative and objective cases, and also in 



ETYMOLOGY. 



45 



both numbers. In the possessive case, they 
are always wanting, except that whose is 
sometimes used as the possessive of which; 
as, " A religion whose origin is divine." "The 
tree whose mortal taste/' &c. 

" Pause, beneath St. Helen's willow 



Whose weeping branches wave above the spot." 

27. Who, being applicable to persons only, 
is applied only to the masculine and feminine 
genders. 

28. Which and that are applied to all the 
genders. 

29. As what is applied to things only, it is 
always neuter. 

The Relative Pronouns are thus declined : — 



Who, 


( Nom. 
-< Poss. 

{ obj. 


Singular. 

Who, 

Whose, 

Whom, 


Plural. 

Who, 

Whose, 

Whom. 


Which, 


( Nom. 
-< Poss. 

1 Obj. 


Which, 
Whose, 
Which, 


Which, 
Whose, 
Which. 


That, 


1 Nom. 
1 Poss. 
1 Obj. 


That, 
That, 


That, 
That. 


What, 


f Nom. 
< Poss. 
1 Obj. 


What, 
What, 


What, 
What. 



46 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

" The hoy who is studious will learn" 

The is a definite article, because it ascertains what particu- 
lar boy is meant. 
boy is a common noun, third person, singular number, mas- 
culine gender, and is the nominative to the verb will 
learn. 

who is a prononn, because it is a word used instead of a 

noun ; a relative pronoun, it relates to some word or 
phrase going before, which is thence called the antece- 
dent ; this relates to boy ; third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and is applied to persons only, 
and the two sexes, and agrees with its antecedent boy, 
according to Rule XV., which says, u Pronouns must 
agree with their antecedents, or the nouns which they 
represent, in person, number, and gender." It is de- 
clined thus, Nom. who, Poss. whose, Obj. whom; it is 
the nominitive case to the verb is, according to Rule 
XVI, which says, " The relative is the nominative case 
to the verb, when no other nominative comes between it 
and the verb." 

is. * is a verb, and has for its nominative, the relative who. 

studious is an adjective, qualifying boy. 

will learn is a regular active-transitive verb, in the indicative 
mood, first future tense, third person, singular number, 
and agrees with its nominative case boy, according to 
Rule VII. 

The boy who is rude. The man whom I saw. The 
teacher whose word must be obeyed. The horse which 
I bought. A book that has the lesson in. A man who 
is destitute of a sense of duty, can never be a man of 
honor. True charity is not a meteor which occasionally 
glares, but a luminary which dispenses a steady and 
benign influence. I do not know whom I have reason to 
love, more than my parents. They whom worth has 
exalted, deserve our respect. The despot was like a beast 



ETYMOLOGY.. 47 

of prey, which destro) T s without pity. Many things are 
not what they appear to be. What we loathe acts upon 
us physically and mentally. What in me is dark, illumine ; 
what is low, raise and support. How often have the 
finest geniuses emerged from what, in the older countries, 
are called the lower classes of society. He that is weary 
himself, will soon weary others. He that knows not 
whither to go, is in no haste to move. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

30. The Compound Relative Pronouns, 
formed by annexing ever and soever, to the 
relatives who, which, and what, are the fol- 
lowing : — 

Whoever, Whosoever, or Whoso. 

Whichever, Whichsoever. 

Whatever, Whatsoever. 

Those compounded of soever are now seldom used ; and whoso, 
an abbreviation of whosoever > though often occurring in the Scrip- 
tures, is obsolete. 

The following are the equivalents of the 
compound relatives, in both numbers: — the 
relative what, being compound only in mean- 
ing, and all the others compound both in 
form and meaning. Each of them includes 
in itself both the antecedent and the relative. 

Singular. Plural. 

What is equivalent to, That thing which. Those things which. 

Whatever, ) Any or every thing All those things which. 
Whatsoever, 5 which. 

Whoever, ) Any or every person All those persons who. 
Whosoever, 5 who. 

Whichever, > Any animal or thing All those animals or 

Whichsoever, > which. things which. 



48 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

31. The compound relatives whoever, whatever, and whichever, 
have an unlimited signification, implied by the indefinite or gen- 
eral terms of their equivalents ; and as they, like the relative 
what, have a two-fold relation, they also represent two cases at 
the same time, and are commonly followed by two verbs ; as, 
u Whoever wishes to be happy, must refrain from vice ;" that is, 
any person, or every person, who wishes to be happy, &c. 
" Whatever has been ordained by God, must be right ;" meaning, 
any or every thing which has been ordained by God, &c. 
" And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite ; 
One truth is clear, whatever is, is right ;"' 

meaning, any or every thing which is, is right. 

Whichever indefinitely represents some one or more objects of 
a kind, expressed or understood ; as, " Of the boats in the re- 
gatta, whichever goes a mile, and returns first, will obtain the 
prize." " Whichever (of the horses) runs and wins, shall have 
the purse," that is, any one of the boats which goes a mile, &c, 
and, any (horse) which runs and wins, &c. 

Obs. — The two cases which a compound relative represents, 
may be either both nominative or both objective ; or one of them 
may be the nominative, and the other the objective. 

32. The compound relatives are used in 
the same persons, numbers, genders, and 
cases, as their primitives, who, which, and 
what; and they are respectively applied to 
persons, animals, and things, and declined 
in the same manner. 

Obs. — Whichever and whatever, like their primitives which 
and what, are frequently prefixed to nouns, thus losing their 
character as relatives, and becoming Pronominal Adjectives ; 
as, " You may take whichever book you want." " I will acquiesce 
in whatever agreement he may make." 

III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

33. Interrogative Pronouns are those which 
are used in asking questions ; as, " Who is 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

he ? " " Which is the Governor ? " " What 
is he doing V s 

34. The interrogative pronouns are who ? 
which ? and what ? 

35. Interrogatives are applied to the same 
numbers and genders as relatives, and declined 
in the same manner. 

36. As interrogatives, who is applied to 
persons only ; and which and ichat are applied 
both to persons and things. WJio is used in 
asking questions to find out the name of a 
person ; what, his office, occupation, or other 
personal distinction ; as, " Who is the Presi- 
dent of the United States ? Answer, Frank- 
lin Pierce/ 5 " What is he ? A lawver." 
ci What is the child? a boy." 

Jffliich is used for enquiring what one of a 
known class or number ; as, " Which of the 
boys ?" " Which of the books ?" 

37. The difference between the interrogative and relative pro- 
nouns, is as follows : — 

1. Who, which, and what, as interrogatives, are never com- 
pounded with ever or soever : while, as relatives, they are so 
compounded. 

2. JJliich and what, used interrogatively, are applied toper- 
sotis as well as things ; but as relatives, they are never applied 
to persons. 

3. What, as an interrogative, is never convertible into that 
which as an equivalent : while as a relative it is always. 

4. Interrogatives relate to a subject which is subsequent, indef- 
inite, and unknown, and which it is expected that the answer to 



50 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

the question should express and ascertain ; whereas, relatives 
relate to a subject antecedent, definite and already known. 

Obs. 1. — Whether, signifying which of the two? was formerly em- 
ployed as an interrogative pronoun ; as, " Whether of the twain 
did the will of his father ?" It is now employed as a conjunction ; 
and its use as a pronoun is supplied by the interrogative which. 

Obs. 2.— The word as, though commonly a conjunction or an 
adverb, is sometimes construed as a relative. Generally, how- 
ever, when it appears to be a relative, there is an ellipsis of such 
words as that which, or those who ; as, " Only such punishment 
is inflicted, as (that which) serves the end of government." " He 
welcomed such as (those who) came." 

Obs. 3. — When which and what are prefixed to nouns, and used 
in asking questions, they are interrogative pronominal adjec- 
tives ; as, " Which book did he take ? " " What man is that ?" 

EXAMPLES FOE PARSING. 

" Whoever murders should be punished ." 

"Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, and has for its equiva- 
lent any person, or every person ivho, which includes 
both the antecedent and the relative. The sentence 
must be parsed as if it read, any or every person who 
murders, &c. The antecedent part of the equivalent 
has an indefinite or general meaning given to it by the 
pronominal adjective any or every. Person, the ante- 
cedent part, is, therefore, of the third person, singular 
number, common gender, and is the nominative case to 
the verb should be punished. Who, the relative part 
of the equivalent, is also of the third person, singu- 
lar number, common gender, agreeing with its antece- 
dent person, according to Rule XV., which says, 
" Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, and the 
nouns which they represent, in person, number, and 
gender" And it is the nominative case to the verb 
murders, according to Rule XVI., which says, " The 
relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no 
other nominative comes between it and the verb.' 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

murders is a regular active-transitive verb, in the 

indicative mood, present tense, third person, 
singular, and agrees with its nominative, 
who, according to Rule VII., which says, 
" A verb must agree with its nominative 
case in person and number." 

should be punished is a regular passive verb, in the potential 
mood, imperfect tense, third person, singular 
number, and agrees with its nominative per- 
son, according to Rule VII. (which repeat.) 

Whoever improves his time will enjoy the rewards of 
industry. " Whoever was not found written in the book 
of life, was cast into the lake of fire. r " Whoso walketh 
uprightly shall be saved." He will teach whomsoever 
they send. There are several desks, and he may sit at 
whichever he chooses. He shall have whatever he wants. 
Whatever is well learned may be understood. Whatever 
is understood may be applied. James will hear whatever 
is said. Mary will learn well whatever she undertakes to 
study. The butcher is inspecting the sheep in the flock, 
and whichever he marks, he will buy. Several trains of 
cars will pass this day, and we must take passage in 
whichever comes along first. You may take whichever 
you please. Thieves steal money, whosever it may be, 
whenever they have an opportunity. Whomsoever he 
will engage to do the work, must do it well. I will buy 
whichever you prefer. I will study either grammar or 
geography, whichever you think best. You may use 
James' or Mary's books or whosever you please. That 
which we acquire with the most difficulty, we retain the 
longest, as those who have earned a fortune are usually 
more careful of it than those who have inherited one. 
Appetite is a relish bestowed upon the poorer classes, that 
they may like what they eat ; while it is seldom enjoyed 
by the rich, because they may eat whatever they like. 
He who says there is no such thing as an honest man, 
judges others by himself. What a man has learned is of 



52 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

importance; but what he can do, and what he will do, 
are more significant things. He was pleased to grant 
three days' grace to whoever was responsible. The rage 
for acquisition grows by what it feeds on. The besetting 
weakness of little minds is plagiarism. The monkey must 
shave himself to imitate his master, and cuts his throat 
in the operation. 



QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF PRONOUNS. 

1. What is a Pronoun ? 

2. How many properties have pronouns? Name them. 

3. Into how many classes are pronouns divided ? Name 
them. 

4. What is a Personal pronoun ? 

5. How many personal pronouns are there ? Name 
them. 

6. Name those in each of the persons, in both numbers, 
and tell what each of them denotes. 

7. How many cases have pronouns ? 

8. In what person and number are the genders of pro- 
nouns distinguished by different forms ? Why do they 
have no variety of form significant of sex, in the first and 
second persons ? Decline each of the personal pronouns. 

9. How many forms of the possessive case have most 
of the personal pronouns ? How are the first of them 
always placed ? And when are they used ? When, and 
under what circumstances, do those of the first form 
change their termination, and become those of the second 
form ? What does each of them, when thus changed, 
represent ? Do those of both forms agree ? and how do 
they agree ? 

10. What forms of the personal pronoun are, by gen- 
eral usage, substituted for thou, thy or thine, and thee ? 

11. Does the possessive pronoun his ever change its 
form? 

12. In what two cases is her of the same form ? How 
can you tell in which case it is ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

13. In what two cases is the pronoun it of the same 
form ? Is its form in the possessive ever changed ? 

14. How are the Compound Personal Pronouns formed 
in the first and second persons ? 

15. How are they formed in the third person ? What 
do they express in the first and second persons ? What do 
they form and denote in the third person ? In what cases 
are they always alike ? With what must they always 
agree, in construction ? Do they ever have a possessive 
case ? 

16. By whom are We and our self used, instead of I and 
myself ? To what is the word own added, and for what 
purpose ? Decline the Compound Personal Pronouns. 

IT. What are Relative Pronouns? 

18. Name them. 

19. To what is the relative who applied ? 

20. To what is the relative which applied ? 

21. To what is that, as a relative, applied ? and for 
what purpose ? 

22. Define the relative what. Explain and illustrate its 
equivalents. 

23. In what persons are who and that used ? 

24. In what person are which and what used ? 

25. What change of form does the relative who undergo 
in declension ? 

26. Do the relatives which, that, and what, vary their 
form, on account of number or case ? Do any of them 
have a possessive case ? Which of them ? 

21. To what genders is the relative who applied ? and 
why ? 

28. To what genders are which and that applied ? 

29. To what gender is the relative what applied ? and 
why ? Decline the Relative Pronouns. 

30. How are the Compound Relative Pronouns formed ? 
AVhat are their equivalents in both numbers ? Wherein 
do they differ from the relative what ? 

31. What is said of the signification, equivalents, &c, 
of whoever, whichever, and whatever ? Explain each of 
them. 



54 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

32. How do the compound relatives and their primi- 
tives who, which, and what, correspond and agree in 
respect to their properties, application, and declension ? 
Which of the compound relatives are frequently prefixed 
to nouns ? and what do they then become ? 

33. What are Interrogative Pronouns 1 

34. Name them. 

35. How are interrogatives applied, in regard to num- 
bers and genders ? and how declined ? 

36. How are the interrogatives applied, with respect to 
persons and things ? 

37. Wherein do the interrogatives differ from the rela- 
tives ? What does whether signify ? and how was it 
formerly used ? How is the word as sometimes construed ? 
When which and what are prefixed to nouns, and used in. 
asking questions, what do they become ? 



ADJECTIVES. 



1. An Adjective is a word used to qualify 
or define nouns; as, " A long journey ;" "that 
boy; each girl; fifty dollars." 

Obs. — An adjective may be known by its making sense with the 
addition of the word thing ; as, " A good thing ; a bad thing ;" 
or of any particular noun ; as, " A sweet apple ; a studious boy." 

CLASES. 

2. Adjectives are divided into two general 
classes ; namely, Qualifying and Definitive. 

I. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 

3. A Qualifying adjective is that which 
expresses some quality or circumstance of 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

the noun to which it relates ; as, " A diligent 
scholar ; a bad boy ; a round ball ; the long 
days." 

Obs. — The only variation which the qualifying, adjectives ad- 
mit, is that of the Degrees of Comparison; as, Wise, wiser, 
wisest ; little, less, least, &c. 

4. There are commonly reckoned three 
degrees of Comparison : the Positive, the 
Comparative, and the Superlative. 

5. The Positive degree is that which ex- 
presses the quality of an object, without any 
increase or diminution ; as good, wise, great. 

Obs. 1. — The positive has the conjunction as both before and 
after it, as its Correlatives or Correspondents of Comparison, 
when it is used, in comparing one thing, or a class of things, with 
another, to express the relation of equality; as, "James is as 
tall as George; " he is as wise as his father." The exceptions 
are fore and hind which cannot be thus construed. 

Obs. 2. — The positive is the simple form of the adjective, and 
serves as the foundation for the other degrees. As it does not 
always imply comparison, it is not necessary, in parsing, to men- 
tion that it is in the positive degree, unless the conjunction as 
precede and follow it. 

6. The Comparative degree is that which 
increases or lessens the signification of the 
positive ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

Obs. 1. — The comparatives are followed by the conjunction 
than, when they are used to express the superiority or inferiority 
of one of two objects, or classes of objects ; as, " Solomon was 
wiser than Solon ;" " Solon was less wise than Solomon." " David 
was more pious than Saul." " Saul was less pious than David." 



56 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

The comparatives former and latter •, and those whose superla- 
tives end in most, are exceptions to this rule, since they cannot 
be construed with than after them. 

Obs. 2. — The comparative is followed by than, when opposition 
is signified ; but when selection is implied, it is preceded by the, 
and followed by of, like the superlative; as, " Africanus was the 
greater of the two Scipios." "John was the elder of the two 
brothers." 

7. The Superlative degree is that which in- 
creases the signification of the positive to the 
highest degree, or diminishes it to the low- 
est ; as wisest, greatest, least wise. 

Obs. — The Superlatives of comparison, always take the article 
the before, and the preposition of after them ; and are used to de- 
note that one of three or more objects, or classes of objects, has 
qualities or attributes in a greater or less degree than any of the 
rest ; as, " James was the least generous of any of his brothers.'* 
" Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians." " Homer is the most 
simple, in his style, o/all the great poets." 

As the number of degrees from the lowest to the highest, of all 
qualifying adjectives, is indefinite, therefore, two other degrees, 
— the Diminutive, and the Superlative of Eminence, may also, 
sometimes, be used with propriety. By their aid, various other 
shades of quality, not denoted by any of the other degrees, can be 
intelligibly expressed, without involving any relation to other 
objects, by the termination of the adjective in ish, or by the help 
of certain modifying words and phrases prefixed to it. 

8. The Diminutive degree is that which is 
indicated by the termination ish, whereby the 
positive is lessened in signification; as, salt, 
saltish, or having a little taste of salt; black, 
blackish, or tending to blackness. 

Obs. 1. — Some nouns also become adjectives of this degree, by 
ending in ish ; as, child, childish, ane. amsh : mule, mulish fce. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

Obs. 2. — The -words slightly, hardly, somewhat, scarcely, &c, 
are also sometimes prefixed to the positive, to lessen its significa- 
tion ; as, cold, slightly cold, somewhat cold ; able, hardly able ; 
scarcely able. 

The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree, 
or excess of a quality; as, " She is rather profuse in her ex- 
penses." 

When the word very, exceedingly, or any other of similar im- 
port, is put before the positive, it is called the Superlative of 
eminence, to distinguish it from the other superlative, which has 
been already mentioned, called the Superlative of Comparison. 
Thus, very happy, is termed the superlative of eminence ; the 
happiest or the most happy, the superlative of comparison. The 
Superlative of Eminence, being absolute, does not express any re- 
lation to other objects ; whereas, the Superlative of Comparison, 
being relative, expresses a relation to other objects, by definite 
and direct comparison. 

9. The Superlative of eminence is expressed 
by prefixing, to the positive, such adverbs as, 
very, exceedingly, extremely, supremely, too, or 
any other intensive word of similar import ; 
as. warm, very warm, exceedingly warm; cold, 
extremely cold, too cold; great, supremely 
great. 

Obs. 1. — The Superlative of eminence is expressed when the 
article a or an, instead of the> is put before those superlatives 
which are formed by placing the adverb most, either before the 
adjective, or at the end of it ; thus, to say, " Henry is the most 
eloquent speaker," implies, that of three or more speakers, he is 
comparatively superior to all the others ; but, if we say, " Henry 
is a most eloquent speaker," it merely implies, that although he 
may be as eloquent as the others, yet he is not superior to any of 
them. " John sat in the uppermost seat," implies, that there was 
no other seat higher than the one in which he sat, nor even as 
high : but, if we say, " John sat in an uppermost seat," it signi- 
fies that there were more seats as high as the one in which he sat. 



58 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

Obs. 2. — The Superlative of eminence is also expressed, when 
we say, " Henry is one of the most eloquent speakers ;" and 
" John sat in one of the uppermost seats ;' 3 and also, when no ar« 
tide at all, is placed before the superlative ; as, " That lady is 
most amiable, and most intelligent ; her dress is most elegant;" 
** this apple is most delicious" 

10. Those adjectives which admit of in- 
crease or diminution, and can, therefore, be 
compared either by the terminational compa- 
rison, or by the prefixing of adverbs, are 
termed Comparable. Most of the qualify- 
ing adjectives are of this kind. 

11. Those adjectives whose signification 
does not admit of increase or diminution, and 
therefore, cannot be compared, are termed 
Incomparable ; as, Superior, inferior, su- 
preme, extreme ; circular, square, &c. 

Obs. — All the definitive adjectives are incomparable. Much* 
many, some, little, few, and several, belong to both classes. 
When they are used as qualifying adjectives, they are com- 
parable. 

MODES OF COMPARISON. 

12. Adjectives are said to be regularly compared, when they 
form their comparative and superlative degrees, by adding er and 
est to their positive, or by having the adverbs more and most, or 
less and least prefixed to them. When the different degrees can- 
not be thus formed, but are expressed by different words, they 
are Bald to be irregularly compared ; and when they cannot be 
used in all the degrees, they are declared defective. 

REGULAR COMPARISON. 

13. Monosyllables. Qualifying adjectives of one syllable are 
regularly compared by adding er to the positive, to form the com- 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

parative ; as, small, smaller ; and est to form the superlative ; as, 
«small, smaller, smallest. If the adjective ends in e, only r and st 
are added ; as, wise, wiser, wisest. 

14. When the positive ends in a single consonant, preceded by 
a single vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the compara- 
tive and superlative degrees ; as, red, redder, reddest ; big, big- 
ger, biggest ; thin, thinner, thinnest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 

15. Dissyllables. Some adjectives, of two syllables, may be 
compared either by the terminational form, or by prefixing the 
adverbs more and most to them; as, Happy, happier, happiest; 
happy, more happy, most happy. Most of the adjectives of this 
kind are those which are accented on the last syllable ; as, dis- 
creet, polite, &c. ; or, end in e mute, or in y, changing it into i, 
when compared by adding er and est; as, Noble, nobler, noblest , 
lovely, lovelier, loveliest. 

The ear, however, or euphony, is the best guide, in the choice 
of these modes of comparison, in such cases. 

16. Trissyllables. Most adjectives, of two syllables, and all 
those of three or more, can only be compared by the prefixing of 
adverbs ; as, frugal, more frugal, most frugal ; studious, more 
studious, most studious. 

17. When diminution of quality is to be expressed, less and 
least are prefixed ; as, valiant, less valiant, least valiant. 

18. Participial adjectives are those which 
retain the form of participles, but perform the 
office of adjectives, by being placed before 
nouns ; as, an interesting story ; an educated 
man ; a broken dish, &c. Some of them ad- 
mit of comparison by having the adverbs 
more and most, or less and least prefixed to 
them. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
19. Some qualifying adjectives, of very common use, are irregu- 
larly compared by a change of words, as follows :— 



\ later, 

(latter, 
Near, nearer, 



60 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Positive. Comp. Superlative. 

Good, better, best. 

Bad, evil or ill, worse, worst. 

Little, less, least. 

Much, (in quantity)} 

>t /• t s > more, most. 

Many, (in number)) ' [place.) 

Far, farther, farthest, (relates to distance or 

Forth, (Adverb) further, furthest, (applied to addition or 

[progression.) 

plater, latest, (relates to time only.) 
last, (relates to time or place.) 
(nearest, (relates to place.) 
(next, (in order.) 
^,, Colder, oldest, (relates to persons or things.) 

(elder, eldest, (relates to persons only.) 
Fore, former, first, (relates to time or order.) 

20. Most of the words of this class, are used as adverbs, as well 
as adjectives ; the word far is now mostly used as an adverb, and 
forth always. Fore is the only one of the positives that cannot be 
construed with as before and after it ; and former and latter are 
the only comparatives that cannot be construed with than after 
them. 

21. Some superlatives are irregularly formed by adding most to 
the comparative ; thus, nether, nethermost ; under, undermost ; 
lower, lowermost. Others, by adding most either to the positive 
or comparative ; thus, hind, hindmost or hindermost ; up, up- 
??wst or uppermost ; in, inmost or innermost ; out, outmost or 
utmost, outermost or uttermost, &c. 

Obs. — Some superlatives ending in most, are defective, in not 
having any comparative ; nor can the positive of such be construed 
with as before and after them ; as, head, headmost ; top, topmost ; 
Eastern, easternmost ; Western, westernmost ; JYorthern, north- 
ernmost, &c. 

22. The superlatives ending in most are not only irregular and 
redundant in their form of comparison, but all their comparatives, 
except farther and further, are anomalous in construction, since 
they can neither be construed with than after them, like other 
comparatives, nor with to like superior, inferior, &c. And of the 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

■words that supply the place of their positives, in, under, and be- 
neath, are prepositions ; up, out and forth are properly adverbs ; 
and head and top are nouns. 

For a full list and exemplification of this class of adjectives, see 
the appropriate Chart. 

INCOMPARABLE ADJECTIVES. 

23. Incomparable adjectives are those which 
are not susceptible of comparison ; among 
which are the following : — 

24. The adjectives superior, inferior ; anterior, posterior ; in- 
terior, exterior, &c, though comparatives in Latin, are not in all 
respects to be considered as such in English ; for, besides wanting 
the termination of the English comparatives, they cannot be con- 
strued with than like most of them, but are followed by to. And 
in meaning, most of them are truly positive, merely implying that 
degree instead of the comparative ; as, the interior simply means 
the inside, in contra-distinction to the exterior or outside ; the 
anterior, "the one before," opposed to posterior, "the one 
behind." Nor is it to be conceived that every adjective which 
implies an excess of quality, is, therefore, a comparative, other- 
wise preferable, (better than,) and previous (prior to) might be 
deemed comparatives. 

25. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative significa- 
tion, do not admit of the comparative or superlative form being 
super-added ; as, Supreme, extreme, chief, Omnipotent, Infi- 
nite, &c. 

26. Adjectives whose signification does not admit of increase or 
diminution, cannot be compared. Among these, are to be reck- 
oned those which denote shape, figure, posture or position ; as, 
Circular, square, perpendicular, horizontal, erect, &c. 

27. Proper adjectives are those which are derived from proper 
names ; as, English, French, American, Irish, &c. Newtonian, 
Julian, Platonic, Epicurean, &c. When such are written or 
printed, they should always begin with a capital letter. 

28. Various nouns, without changing their form, assume the 



62 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

nature of adjectives, in describing the kind or quality of other 
nouns ; as, a gold ring ; a silver spoon ; an iron bar ; sea water ; 
cloth shoes, &c. 

Obs. — When two nouns are incorporated ; as, bookseller, brick- 
layer, inkstand, gingerbread, &c, or are connected by a hyphen, 
as steam-engine, corn-mill, coal-mine, fruit-tree, &c, they are 
considered as forming one compound word, and are called Com- 
pound Nouns, and may be parsed as such. 

29. Compound Adjectives are those which consist of two or 
more words, one of which is commonly either an adjective or an 
adverb, connected by a hyphen ; as, Milk-white, ivy -mantled, 
well-known, four-footed, frost-bitten, &c. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

" James is as tall as his father " 

James, ..is a Proper noun, of the third person, singular, mascu- 
culine gender, and is the nominative case to the verb is. 

is is a Verb, which is a word that signifies to be, to do, or to 

suffer ; this verb signifies to be. 

as is a Conjunction of comparison. 

tall is an Adjective, which is a word that qualifies or defines 

a noun ; this adjective qualifies a noun. A Qualify- 
ing Adjective, because it expresses some quality or 
circumstance of the noun to which it belongs; and 
being comparable, and a word of one syllable, it is com- 
pared by adding er and est to the positive ; thus, Pos. 
tall ; Com., taller ; Sup. tallest ; it is in the positive de- 
gree, which is the simple form of the adjective, and 
expresses the quality of an object without any increase 
or diminution. The conjunction as before and after it, 
are the Correlatives or Correspondents of comparison of 
the positive degree, and are used in comparing one object 
with another to denote equality, as they now do in com- 
paring James with his father; and it belongs to James 
according to Rule XVII, which says, " Every adjective 
belongs to some noun expressed or understood. 5 ' 

as is a Conjunction of comparison. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

his.... -.is a Personal, pronoun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, and in the possessive case, 
governed by father according to Rule XI, (which 
repeat.) 

father., .is a Common noun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and in the nominative case. 

A diligent scholar. A strong man. A peaceful mind. 
Bad company is dangerous. A pleasant and cheerful 
prospect. She is more studious than her sister, and has a 
better education. Daniel is a more learned man than 
Henry, but less eloquent. The wisest and best men some- 
times commit errors. Think not the longest life the hap- 
piest. The most acceptable sacrifice is that of a contrite 
heart. 

"Our greatest blessings often arise from the disappoint- 
ment of our most anxious hopes, and our most fervent 
wishes." 

" The human heart ne'er knows a state of rest ; 
Bad leads to worse, and better tends to*best." 



II. DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

30. Definitive adjectives are those which 
define or limit the signification of nouns ; as 
That book, each scholar, several boys, other 
girls. 

31. Definitive adjectives, however classi- 
fied, generally relate to number, expressed or 
implied. 

Obs. — Definitive adjectives never express quality ; they gene- 
rally denote unity or plurality > and must always agree in num- 
ber with the nouns to which they relate ; as One man, two men, 
ten men ; theirs* man, the second man, the twentieth man ; this 
man, those men, all men. 



64 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

32. Definitive adjectives are divided into 
two classes : — Numeral and Pronominal. 

I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

33. Numeral adjectives are those which 
simply denote number; as, One, two three, 
&c, first, second, third, &c, single, double or 
two-fold, &c. 

34. Numeral adjectives are oi three kinds, 
namely, 

35. 1. The Cardinal, those which express 
a number absolutely ; as, One, two, three, four, 
&c. 

Obs. — All after one denote plurality, and are applied to plural 
nouns. They answer the question, How many ? 

36. 2. The Ordinal, those which denote 
number in order or succession; as, First, se- 
cond, third, &c. 

Obs. — As the ordinals merely serve to denote numerically the 
order, or succession, in which a series of objects are arranged, they 
are all of the singular number. They answer the question, 
Which one of the numbers ? 

37. 3. The Multiplicative, those which de- 
note how many fold ; as, single, double or two- 
fold, triple or threefold, quadruple or four- 
fold, quintuple ox fivefold, &c. 

Obs. 1. — The numerals of this kind denote the aggregate of 
numbers, or several particulars embraced in one whole ; and aa 
nouns cannot be pluralized by their application, they are, there- 






ETYMOLOGY. 65 

fore, singular both in sense and construction ; as, *« A double or 
two-fold sheet of paper makes four pages;" " A sheet, four -fold, 
makes the quarto size." 

Obs. 2. — These multiplicative words are also occasionally used as 
qualifying adjectives, in which sense, they merely qualify or 
describe the kind of nouns to which they relate. As such, they 
are applied to plural as well as singular nouns ; as, ' ; The single 
roses are in full bloom;" "The double pinks are large;" "All 
the four-fold sheets are bound in a book," that is, all the sheets 
of that kind are bound in a book. 

II. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 

38. Pronominal adjectives are those which 
either define their nouns when expressed, or 
represent them, like pronouns, when under- 
stood ; as, " Many (persons) are called, but 
few (persons) are chosen/' 

Come one, come all ! 



This rock shall fly 

From its firm base as soon as I." 

39. There are four kinds of pronominal 
adjectives, namely, Demonstrative, Distribu- 
tive, Indefinite, and Interrogative. 

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

40. Demonstrative adjectives are those 
which precisely point out the subjects to 
which they relate ; this and that, with their 
plurals, these and those, are of this class ; as, 
" This is true charity ; that is only its image." 

Obs. 1. — This refers to the nearer person, or thing, and that 
to the more distant; as, " This man is more intelligent than 



66 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

that." " This indicates the latter or last mentioned; that the 
former or first-mentioned; as, " Both wealth and poverty are 
temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent." The 
same distinction is also to be made between their plurals, these 
and those ; as, 

"Some place their bliss in action, some in ease : 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these." 

Obs. 2. — The comparatives former and latter are sometimes used 
instead of that and this ; as, " A bad author deserves better usage 
than a bad critic ; a man may be the former (that,) merely 
through the misfortune of want of judgment, but he cannot be the 
latter (this,) without both that and an ill temper." 

Obs. 3. — Yon and its comparative yonder, former and latter, 
may properly be classed with the demonstratives. Yon or yonder 
is equivalent to that, but points to an object more remote, yet 
within view; as, " The lay grav'd on the stone beneath yon aged 
thorn." " There, at the foot of yonder nodding beech." 

u Yon flowery arbours, yonder alleys green." 

Obs. 4. — Former and latter sometimes assume the possessive 
form, and are used as nouns ; as, " The former's phlegm ; the 
latter's vivacity." When they are used as demonstratives, their 
nouns, if not expressed in the sentence, are always understood. 

DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

41. Distributive adjectives are those which 
denote the persons or things that make up a 
number as taken separately and singly. They 
are each, every, either and neither, and always 
relate to nouns of the third person singular. 
The two latter relate only to two objects or 
classes of objects. 

Obs. 1. — Each relates to two or more persons or things, and 
signifies either of the two, or every one of any number taken sepa- 
rately ; as, " Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation." 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Obs. 2. — Every relates to several persons or things, and signi- 
fies each one of them all taken separately ; as, " Every man 
must account for himself." It is sometimes used in construction 
with a plural noun, implying a collective idea ; as, " Every seven 
years." 

It was formerly used apart from its noun, but now it is always 
prefixed to it, except in legal proceedings ; as, in the phrase, " All 
and every of them." 

Obs. 3. — Either relates to only two persons or things taken 
separately, and denotes indifferently the one or the other of them, 
but not both ; as, " You may take either of the two books." To 
say, " either of the three," is, therefore, improper ; it should be, 
*' Any one of the three." 

Obs. 4. — Either is frequently used for each ; as, " On either 
side of the river was there the tree of life." " They crucified Him, 
and two others with Him, on either side one." When either is used 
as the correspondent to or, it is a conjunction ; as, M Either the 
one or the other." 

Obs. 5. — Neither means " not either ;" that is, not one nor the 
other ; as, " Neither of my friends was there." " Substances, in 
general, are of neither sex." If the reference is to more than two, 
it should be, «* JVone of my friends were there," that is, not one 
of them, 

INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 

42. Indefinite adjectives are those which 
express their subjects in an indefinite or 
general manner. The following are of this 
kind : Some, other, any, one, all, such, no, none, 
another, both, many, few, several, same, divers, 
sundry, little, whole, which, what, whichever, 
whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. Of these, 
one, another, and whole, are singular : both, 



68 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

few, several, many, all, divers, and sundry, are 
plural ; and the rest of them are applied to 
both numbers. 

Obs. 1. — All denotes the aggregate or whole of a quantity or 
number taken together ; when it refers to quantity r , it is joined to 
singular nouns ; as, " Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy 
work ;" " All the corn." When to number, to plural nouns ; as, 
" All the men ;" " All men have sinned." 

Obs. 2. — Another is compounded of an and other, and conse- 
quently means, one other. It can be applied only to the singu- 
lar number. 

Obs. 3. — No and none imply the negation of all number. No, 
as an adjective, can only be used when its noun is expressed ; as, 
" No man can serve two masters." " No person could read it " 
On the contrary, None is employed, only when the noun is 
omitted; as, " None could read it." " Thou shalt lie down and 
none shall make thee afraid." 

None, though a contraction of no one, can be applied to both 
numbers ; as, " None is so deaf, as he that will not hear." 
"None of them are varied." 

Obs. 4. — When which and what, and their compounds whichever, 
whichsoever, and whatever, whatsoever are prefixed to nouns, 
they are indefinite pronominal adjectives ; as, " I do not know 
which train I shall go in." " Call me by what name you please." 
" Whichever conveyance." " Whatever agreement," &c. 

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

43. When which and what are prefixed to 
nouns, and used in asking questions, they are 
interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "ti'Tiich 
school do you attend V 9 " Which book do vou 
read in V 9 " What man is that ?" " What 
men are those V 9 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS. 

Adjectives standing alone, that is, without a noun expressed, 
and indicating persons or things with clearness, may be parsed as 
representing them in person, number, gender and case ; or if 
preferred, with the ellipsis supplied ; as, " For unto whomsoever 
much is given, of him shall be much required." 

" Man wants but Utile here below, 
Nor wants that little long." 

Obs. 1. — When qualifying adjectives relate to persons, as a 
class, they are commonly preceded by the, and imply plurality ; 
as, " Providence rewards the good (people), and punishes the bad 
(people)." " The wicked (people) are overthrown and are not, 
but the house of the righteous (people) shall stand." " The rich 
(people) ought to help the poor (people)." " The virtuous 
(people) are esteemed, and the vicious (persons) are despised." 

Obs. 2. — In some instances, an adjective, used as a noun, is 
qualified by another adjective ; as, " The same day, were all the 
fountains of the great deep broken up." " A quiet conscience is 
the greatest good." " The mighty void" " The wide immense." 
" The chief good" 

Obs. 3. — When cardinal numbers, and the word other, are 
pluralized, or put into the possessive case as another's, they be- 
come really nouns, and as such are regularly declined ; as, " The 
boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young ones" " The 
twos were altered to jives and tens." " One ought to know one's 
own mind." " I will not destroy it for twenty's sake." " What 
do ye more than others ?" " Teach me to feel another's wo." 

Obs. 4. — Comparatives sometimes assume the plural or the 
possessive form of nouns, and are used as such; as, " We obey 
our superiors." " I am, my Lord, but as my betters are, that led 
me thither." "You have read, and you have written, because 
you saw your elders read and write." " The former's phlegm 
was a check upon the latter' s vivacity." " Washington and Napo- 
leon were both wonderful men; but the former s fame is infinitely 
more enviable than the latter' s." 



70 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 5. — Each other, and One another, denote the reciprocal 
or mutual action of different agents ; and either of them taken 
conjointly with the other, may be regarded as forming one com- 
pound word that can be used, substantively, in the possessive and 
objective cases of the singular number; as, " They use each 
others books." " They struck each other" " Bear one another's 
burdens." " Love one another" 

Obs. 6. — Each other is commonly used in reference to two 
objects ; and one another in reference to three or more ; as, 
■ ' Mary and Lucy play with each other, and nurse each other's 
dolls." " John, James, and Gilbert play with one another, and 
roll one another's marbles." " A new commandment I give unto 
you, That ye love one another ; as I have loved you, that ye also 
love one another" — St. John xiii. 34. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

" Those looks are miner 

Those. ..is an Adjective, which is a word used to qualify or define 
a noun; this rfg/?nw a noun. Definitive Adjective, 
because it defines or limits the signification of the noun ; 
Pronominal, it defines the noun when expressed, or re- 
presents it like a pronoun when understood ; Demonstra- 
tive, it precisely points out the subject to which it 
relates ; and belongs to the noun books, agreeing with it 
in the plural number, according to Rule XVIII, which 
says, "Numeral and pronominal adjectives must agree 
with their nouns in number." 

books. .As a common noun, of the third person, plural number, 
in the nominative case, and governs the verb are. 

are is a verb. 

mine is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular num- 
ber, and in the possessive case, governed by the noun 
books. 

I will take this lesson, and you may take that. ,. 
These rules are not so hard to learn as those. 
Each of them should be carefully studied. 



ETYMOLOGY, Tl 

Neither of them should be neglected. 

There is a dock on either side of the river. 

Some cried one thing, and some another. 

There was no other person present. 

All persons seek happiness. Fifty-two weeks make a 
year. March has thirty-one days. On the sixth trial, he 
succeeded. 

When going the tenth mile, he gave out. 

Which books did he take ? What child is that ? 

It is not yet ascertained which house he will occupy, 
or what business he will pursue. 

The medal will be awarded to whichever scholar recites 
best. 

Whatever lessons are given to him, he will learn. A 
sheet of paper, eight-fold, makes eight leaves of the oc- 
tavo size. A sheet twelve-fold, makes the duodecimo 
size, and twenty-four pages. 

Every one complains of his memory, but no one com- 
plains of his judgment. 

A fine coat often covers an intolerable fool, but it never 
conceals one. 

None are so fond of secrets, as those who do not mean 
to keep them ; such persons covet secrets as a spendthrift 
covets money, for the purpose of circulation. 

All men are but the stewards of God, who says to 
every one, " As every man hath received the gift, so min- 
ister the same one to another, as good stewards of the 
manifold grace of God." 

Every one cared for himself, and nobody else. The 
rich oppressed the poor, and they would cheat *Ach 
other. 

It is right to think for one's self. 

M A three-fold cord is not quickly broken." 

" By thy triple shape as thou art seen." 

" Before the gates there sat, 
On either side a formidable shape. 
The one seemM woman to the waist," &c. 



12 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

" The other shape — 
If shape it might be called, that shape had none 
Or substance, * * * * 
For each seemed either." 

It is no disgrace to owe one's rank to one's self, instead 
of one's father. 



QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. What is an Adjective ? 
How may adjectives be known ? 

2. Into how many general classes are adjectives divided? 
Name them. 

3. What is a Qualifying adjective ? 

What variation, do the qualifying adjectives admit ? 

4. How many Degrees of Comparison are there ? 
What are they called ? 

5. What is the Positive degree ? 

What are its Correspondents of Comparison ? 
What are the exceptions ? 

How many objects are compared, when the positive is 
used ? and for what purpose ? 

Does the positive always imply comparison ? 

6. What is the Comparative Degree ? 

What word is used after comparatives, when being 
compared ? 

Which of the comparatives cannot be construed with 
than after them ? 

How many objects are compared, when the comparative 
is used ? and what to denote ? 

?. What is the Superlative Degree ? 

How many objects are compared, when the Superlative 
degree is used ? and what to denote ? 

What words does the superlative always require before 
and after it, in comparison ? 

Are there any exceptions to this rule ? 

Are there any other Degrees ? What are they ? 

8. What is the Diminutive Degree ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

What words are sometimes prefixed to the positive to 
express the diminutive degree ? 

9. What is the Superlative of Eminence ? 

Explain the effect the different articles have upon the 
meaning of those superlatives formed by the prefixing of 
most, and those ending in it ? and also when no article at 
all is used ? 

10. What adjectives are termed Comparable ? 

11. What adjectives are termed Incomparable ? 
Can definitive adjectives be compared ? 

What proportion of qualifying adjectives are compa- 
rable ? 

12. When are adjectives said to be regularly compared ? 
When irregularly ? and when are they defective ? 

13. What adjectives are regularly compared ? 
How are those ending in e compared ? 

14. How are adjectives ending in a single consonant, 
preceded by a single vowel, compared ? 

15. How are adjectives of two syllables, which end in 
y or e mute, or are accented on the last syllable, com- 
pared ? 

How is the choice to be determined ? 

16. How are most adjectives of two syllables, and all 
those of three or more, compared ? 

It. How are they compared, when diminution of quality 
is to be expressed ? 

18. What are Participial Adjectives ? Do any of them 
admit of comparison ? and how compared ? 

19. How are adjectives irregularly compared ? 

20. What is said of most of the words of this class, 
which are used in the positive ? 

Which of them cannot be construed with as before and 
after them ? 

21. How are the superlatives ending in most formed ? 

22. What is said of their comparatives ? Can any of 
them be construed with than after them ? 

What is said of those words that supply the place of 
their positives ? Can they be compared by having th< 
conjunction as before and after them ? 



74 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

23. What are Incomparable adjectives ? 

24. Should the adjectives superior, inferior, anterior, 
&c, be considered as comparatives in English ? and why 
not? 

25. Do adjectives, having a superlative signification in 
themselves, admit of comparison ? and why not ? 

26. Can adjectives denoting figure, shape, &c, be com- 
pared ? Why not ? 

27. What are Proper adjectives ? and how should they 
always be written and printed ? 

28. Are nouns ever used as adjectives ? and for what 
purpose ? 

When two nouns are incorporated, or are connected by 
a hyphen, what are they ? 

29. What are Compound adjectives ? 



DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

30. What are Definitive adjectives ? 

31. What is the only property that belongs to defini- 
tive adjectives ? 

What do definitive adjectives denote ? and in what 
respect must they always agree with the nouns to which 
they belong ? 

32. Into how many Classes are definitive adjectives 
divided ? and what are they called ? 

33. What are Numeral adjectives ? 

34. How many kinds of numeral adjectives are there ? 
Name them. 

35. What are the Cardinal numbers? and what do 
they denote ? 

36. What are the Ordinal numbers? and of what 
number are they ? and why ? 

37. What are the Multiplicative numbers ? 
What do the numerals of this kind denote ? 
Of what number are they ? and why ? 

Are they ever applied to plural nouns ? Wheiv ? 

38. What are Pronominal adjectives ? 






ETYMOLOGY. 75 

39. How many kinds of pronominal adjectives are 
there ? Xame them. 

40. What are Demonstrative adjectives ? 
Which of them are singular ; and which plural ? 

To what does each of them relate ? and what does each 
of them indicate ? 

What are the words former and latter, and yon and 
yonder ? What do they do ? 

41. What are Distributive adjectives ? Xame them. 
To what number do they belong ? 

To what does each of them relate, and what signify ? 

42. What are Indefinite adjectives ? Xame them. 
Which of them are singular ? which are plural ? and 

which are applied to both numbers ? 

What does all denote ? When is it singular, and when 
plural ? 

What do no and none imply ? and how are they respec- 
tively used ? 

When which and what, and their compounds, are pre- 
fixed to nouns, what are they ? 

43. When which and what are prefixed to nouns, and 
used in asking questions, what are they called ? 



VERBS. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to 
do, or to suffer ; as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. 

2. Verbs are modified by Moods, Tenses, 
Persons, and Numbers. 

CLASSES. 

3. Verbs, with respect to their form, are 
divided into three classes ; Regular, Irregu- 
lar, and Defective. 



76 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

4. A regular verb is that which forms its 
imperfect or past tense, and its perfect parti- 
ciple by adding ed to the verb, or, d only 
when the verb ends in e ; as, learn, learned, 
learned ; love, loved, loved. 

5. An irregular verb is that which does 
not form its imperfect or past tense, and per- 
fect participle, by adding ed or d to the verb ; 

as, see, saw, seen ; go, went, gone. 

6. A defective verb is that which is used 
only in some of the moods and tenses ; as, 
can, could ; will, would, &c. 

7. Verbs, with respect to their signification, 
are divided into four different classes; Active- 
transitive, Active-intransitive, Passive, and 
Neuter. 

8. An active-transitive verb is that which 
expresses the action of an agent that passes 
over to some object ; as, "Alexander conquered 
Darius;" "I wrote the letter;" "They read 
their books." 

9. An active-intransitive verb is that which 
expresses the action of an agent, that does 
not pass over to any object, but is wholly 
confined to the agent itself; as, " John 
walks;" "Edwin runs;" "the child weeps;" 
" the mother mourns" 



ETYMOLOGY. 7 f 

10. A passive verb is that which represents 
its subject or nominative, as suffering, or 
receiving an action; as, "Darius was con- 
quered by Alexander ;" " the books are read 
by them." 

11. A neuter verb is that which expresses 
neither action nor passion, but simply being, 
or a state of being; as, "I am; he is; we 
sleep ; they sit" 

12. There are also two other kinds of 
verbs, namely, the Auxiliary, and the Imper- 
sonal. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

13. Auxiliary verbs are w 7 ords of one sylla- 
ble, by the help of which the principal verbs 
are conjugated in most of their moods and 
tenses. They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, 
and can, with their variations, and must which 
has no variation. 

Obs. 1. — Those verbs which are exclusively auxiliaries, have no 
government of case ; nor do they take the sign of the infinitive 
before them. We cannot say, to may, to can, to shall, nor to 
must. 

Obs. 2. — The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear 
from the following additional observations. 

Bo and did mark the action itself, or the time of it, with greater 
energy and positiveness ; as, " I do speak the truth ;" "I did 
respect him;" " Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are 
of great use in negative sentences; as, " I do not fear ;" "I did 
not write." They are almost universally employed in asking 
questions ; as, " Did he learn r" " Does he not write ?" 



18 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

May and might express the possibility or liberty of doing a 
thing ; can and could, the power ; as, " It may rain ;" "I may 
"write or read ;" " He might have improved more than he has ;" 
" He can write much better than he could last year." 

Must is sometimes used as an auxiliary, and denotes necessity ; 
as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and must 
not prevaricate." 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolu- 
tion and promising ; in the second, and the third person, only 
foretells ; as, "I will reward the good, and will punish the 
wicked ;" " We will remember benefits and be grateful ;" " Thou 
wilt, or he will repent of that folly ;" " You or they will have a 
pleasant walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in 
the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens ; 
as, " I shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" " Thou shalt, 
or you shall inherit the land;" "They shall account for their 
misconduct." The foreigner who, as it is said, fell into the river, 
and cried out ; " I will be drowned, nobody shall help me ;" made 
a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs will and 
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the 
sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, generally takes place ; 
thus, "I shall go;" "you will go;" express event only; but, 
" will you go ?" imports intention ; and, " shall I go ?" refers to 
the will of another. But, "he shall go," and "shall he go ?" 
both imply will ; expressing or referring to command. 

Would and should are subject to the same rules as will and 
shall. Would, in the first person, implies an inclination or wil- 
lingness in the speaker ; as, I would sing if I could." In the 
second and third persons, it simply foretells ; as, " You would be 
astonished, were you to see his performance." 

Should, in the first person, generally foretells ; as, " Were I to 
run, I should soon be fatigued." In the second and third persons, 
it is equivalent to ought ; as, " We should (ought to) remember 
the poor." Should, in the third person, preceded by a con- 
junction, often foretells ; as, " If he should not succeed, he him- 
self would be to blame." 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

Would, primarily denotes inclination of will ; and should obli- 
gation ; but they both, occasionally, vary their import, and are 
often used to express a simple event. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

14. Impersonal verbs are those which are 
used only in the third person singular, with 
it for the nominative ; as, It rains, it snows, it 
lightens, it thunders, it freezes, it is cold, &c. 
They are so called, because the neuter pro- 
noun it does not seem to represent any ante- 
cedent person or thing, and is, therefore, 
considered to be, not a personal subject, but 
merely an expletive. They are, in some 
grammars, called Unipersonal verbs. 

MOODS. 

15. Moods are different forms of the verb, 
showing the particular manner in which the 
being, action, or passion, is expressed. 

16. There are five moods : — the Indicative, 
the Imperative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, 
and the Infinitive. 

17. The Indicative mood is that form of the 
verb, which simply indicates or declares a 
thing; as, " He loves, he is loved ;" or, it asks 
a question ; as, " Does he love ?" " Is he 
toed?" 

18. The Imperative mood is that form of the 
verb, which is used for commanding, exhort- 



80 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

ing, entreating, or permitting ; as, " Depart 
thou f " Mind ye f " Let us stay ;" " Go in 
peace. " 

Obs.- — The command or entreaty is always in the present time, 
*nd addressed from the first to the second person. Hence, the 
mperative mood has usually only the second person, in each 
number of the present tense ; as, " Love thou; Love ye or you" 

19. The Potential mood is that form of the 
verb which implies possibility or liberty, 
power, will, or obligation ; as, " It may rain ; 
he may go or stay; I can ride; he would 
walk ; they should learn." It is also used in 
asking questions ; as, " Can you sing ? May 
he go ? Must I stay ?" 

20. The Subjunctive mood is that form of 
the verb which represents the being, action, 
or passion as doubtful, contingent, or condi- 
tional ; as, " Were he good, he would be 
happy/' that is, if he were good, &c. " I 
will respect him, though he chide me." 

21. The Infinitive mood is that form of the 
verb which expresses the being, action, or 
passion, in a general and unlimited manner, 
without any distinction of person or number ; 
as, " To sit, to speak, to be feared" 

Obs. — The infinitive present is the radical form or root of the 
verb, and the name of it. It may generally be known by the sign 
to before it. Sometimes, it is equivalent to a noun, performing 
its office in the nominative and objective cases : in the nominative ; 
as, " To rise early is healthful:" in the objective; as, " Boys 
love to play ." 






ETYMOLOGY. 81 

TENSES. 

22. Te?ise signifies the distinction of time. 
There are three general divisions of time : 

— the present, past, and future ; but to mark 
it more accurately, it is made to consist of 
one present tense, three past, and two future 
tenses : hence, 

Verbs have six tenses : the Present, the 
Imperfect, tliQ Perfect, the Pluperfect, the 
First-future, and the Second-future. 

23. The Indicative and Subji^nctive moods 
have all the six tenses. 

24. The Imperative has only one tense; the 
Present. 

25. The Potential has four, namely, the 
Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the 
Pluperfect. 

26. The Infinitive has two; the Present, 
and the Perfect. 

27. The Present tense is that which denotes 
the present time; as, "I love; he is loved ; 
they are loving." 

28. The Imperfect tense is that which 
denotes time completely past ; as, " I wrote a 
letter, and sent it to him last week ; he was 
then traveling." 

Obs. — The imperfect indicative, in its simple form, is also 
called the preterit tense ; as, loved> went, was, would, could, &c. 



82 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

29. The Perfect tense is that which not 
only denotes past time, but also conveys an 
allusion to the present ; as, " I have written 
the letter ; it has just been sent to him." 

30. The Pluperfect tense is that which 
denotes past time, but as prior to some other 
past time specified ; as, " I had finished my 
letter before he arrived." 

31. The Fir st future tense is that which 
denotes time, to come ; as, " I will write to- 
morrow;" " I shall see them again." 

32. The Secondfuture tense is that which 
denotes what will have taken place, at or 
before some other future time mentioned; 
as, "I shall have finished my letter, when or 
before the mail arrives." 

Although the terms here used, to designate most of the tenses, 
may not be so significant and appropriate as scientific names 
should be, they are nevertheless adopted, not only because of 
their having been so long used, and so generally approved by 
most of the eminent grammarians, and hence have an established 
authority, but also from the fact of the great want of agreement 
and uniformity among most modern grammarians respecting any 
others, as will appear from the following discordant list of some 
of the names substituted for them, and applied by different 
authors of the present day : — 

Present. Present definite ; Present indefinite ; Present em* 
phatic. 

Imperfect. Past : Past-definite ; Indefinite-past ; Preterit J 
First-preterit ; Preter-imperfect 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

Perfect. Prior-present ; Present-perfect ; Past-indefinite ; 
Perfect-present ; Present-anterior ; Second-preterit ; Preter- 
perfect. 

Pluperfect, Prior-past ; Past-perfect ; Prior-perfect ; Past- 
anterior ; Preter-pluperfect ; Third-preterit. 

First-future. Future ; Indefinite-future ; Present-future ; 
Future-imperfect ; Future-indefinite ; Future-anterior ; Present- 
future-perfect, 

Second-future. Prior-future ; Future-perfect ; Perfect-future. 

PARTICIPLES. 

33. A participle is a certain form of a 
verb, and derives its name from its partici- 
pating the properties both of a verb and an 
adjective ; as, " I am desirous of knowing 
him ;" " admired and applauded, he became 
vain;" " Having finished his work, he sub- 
mitted it," &c, 

Obs. — Participles partake of the nature, and perform the office 
of verbs, in implying the idea of time, and signifying actions ; and 
when transitive, in governing the objective case of nouns and 
pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do. That they are mere 
modes of the verb, is manifest ; for they signify being, doing, or 
suffering, with the designation of time superadded ; therefore, 
they are herein comprehended in the general name of verbs, and 
not considered as a distinct part of speech. 

34. There are three participles : the 
Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Per- 
fect ; as, Present, loving; Perfect, loved; 
Compound Perfect, having loved, 

35. The present participle is that which 
denotes a continuance of the being, action, 



84 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

or passion, arid is always formed by adding 
ing to the verb ; as, standing, seeing, being 

seen. 

36. The perfect participle denotes that the 
being, action, or passion, is perfected or com- 
pletely finished; as, been, learned, loved. 

37. The Compound perfect participle de- 
notes, that the being, action, or passion, is 
completed before some other action speci- 
fied ; as, " Having learned his lesson, he 
walked abroad for exercise." 

PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

38. Verbs, like their nominatives, have in 
each number, three persons ; and in each 
person, two numbers, — the singular and the 
plural; thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I love. 1st Person, We love. 

2d Person, Thou lovest. 2d Person, Ye or you love. 

3d Person, He loves, or loveth. 3d Person, They love. 

Obs. — Person and number, strictly speaking, belong to the 
nominative, which is either a noun or a pronoun, and not to the 
attribute or verb, which simply signifies being, action, or passion. 

« 

THE ROOT OF THE VERB. 

39. The Root of a verb is that simplest 
form of it, which is found in the present 



ETYMOLOGY, 85 

infinitive. It is so called, because, from it, 
the principal parts are derived. 

40. The Principal parts of a verb are 
those from which all the other parts are 
formed. 

41. There are three principal parts, namely, 
the Present tense, the Imperfect ox past tense, 
and the Perfect Participle ; as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Love, Loved, Loved. 

See, Saw, Seen. 

Go, Went, Gone. 

A verb deficient in any of these parts, is 
called defective. 

THE SIGXS AND FORMATIONS OF THE MOODS AND 
TENSES. 

42. The signs of the moods and tenses are 
chiefly auxiliaries, which, when joined to 
verbs or participles, express the manner and 
time of their being, action, or passion, and 
distinguish the different moods and tenses 
from one another. 

Remark. — When the learner recites the following signs and 
formations of the various moods and tenses of the verbs, he should 
also be required to conjugate them, in the different persons and 
numbers, on the Chart, till he is thoroughly familiar with them. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
43. The Present tense has for its signs, the simple form of the 
verb itself, or the auxiliary do, and its variations, dost, doth, or 



86 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

does ; and is formed by prefixing them to the root of the verb ; as, 
I love, I do love, thou dost love, he doth or does love. 

44. The Imperfect tense has for its signs, the termination d or 
ed, of the regular verbs ; or the auxiliary did, and its variation, 
didst, prefixed to the root of the verb ; as, I loved, I learned ; I 
did love, thou didst love. 

45. The Perfect tense has for its signs, have, and its variations 
hast, hath or has, prefixed to the perfect participle ; as, I have 
loved, thou hast loved, he hath or has loved. 

46. The Pluperfect tense has for its signs, had, and its varia- 
tion, hadst, prefixed to a perfect participle ; as, I had loved, thou 
hadst loved. 

47. The First-future tense has for its signs, shall and will, and 
their variations, shalt and wilt ; and is formed by prefixing them 
to the root of the verb ; as, I shail or will love, thou shalt or wilt 
love. 

48. The Second- future tense has for its signs, sh all have, and 
will have, and the variation, wilt have, prefixed to a perfect par- 
ticiple ; as, I shall have loved, thou wilt have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

49. The Imperative mood is expressed by the root of the verb 
itself, except that the auxiliary do is occasionally used with it. 
The verb, in this mood, is always in the present tense, agreeing 
with thou or ye or you after it, expressed or understood ; and 
when do is used, the nominative comes between it and the princi- 
pal verb. Neither the principal verb, nor the auxiliary is ever 
varied in this mood. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The tenses of the Potential mood, have for their signs the fol- 
lowing auxiliaries : — 

60. The Present tense has may, can, or must, with the varia- 
tions, mayst, or canst prefixed to the root of a verb ; as, I may, 
cun, or must love, thou mayst, canst, or must love. 



ETYMOLOGY. 8T 

51. The Imperfect tense has might, could, would, or should, 
and their variations mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst, pre- 
fixed to the root of a verb ; as, I might, could, would or should 
love, thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love. 

52. The Perfect tense has may have, can have, or must have, 
and their variations, prefixed to a perfect participle ; as, I may, 
can, or must have loved, thou mayst, canst, or must have 
loved. 

53. The Pluperfect tense has might have, could have, would 
have, or should have, and their variations, prefixed to a perfect 
participle ; as, I might, could, would, or should have loved, thou 
mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

54. The Subjunctive mood has generally for its signs, the con- 
junctions if, though, unless, except, lest, whether, &c, placed 
before it ; as, If I love ; unless he love. 

55. The signs of the several tenses of the Subjunctive mood are, 
in every respect, the same as those of tft'e correspondent tenses of 
the indicative, except the present and the second-future; the 
former of which has no personal endings, and of the latter, the 
auxiliary shalt, shall, not wilt, will, is used in the second and 
third persons, singular and plural. The present and imperfect 
tenses of the verb be, are also different from those of the 
indicative. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

56. The Infinitive mood has for its sign, the particle to, which, 
in the Present tense, is prefixed to the simple form of the verb ; 
as, To love ; to be. 

57. The Perfect tense has to have for its sign, and is formed by 
prefixing it to the perfect participle ; or the sign to, to the perfect 
indicative ; as, To have loved ; to have been loved. 



OO GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 
68. The Present participle is always formed by adding ing to 
the verb ; as, fearing, loving ; and when passive, by prefixing 
being to the perfect ; as, being feared, being loved. 

59. The Perfect participle of regular verbs, terminates in ed, 
or d only, when the verb ends in e ; as, feared, loved, "When the 
verb is irregular, it has various terminations, as may be seen by 
adverting to the list. 

60. The Compound perfect participle is formed by prefixing 
having to the perfect participle ; as, having feared ; having 
loved ; and when passive, by inserting been between them ; as, 
having been feared ; having been loved. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

61. The Conjugation of a verb, is the 
regular combination and arrangement of its 
several moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

Obs. 1. — The term conjugation is derived from the two Latin 
words, con together, and jugum a yoke, meaning to yoke or join 
together. 

Obs. 2. — The moods and tenses are formed partly by the inflec- 
tions or changes of the principal verb itself, and partly by the 
assistance of auxiliaries. 

Those tenses which are formed by the verb itself, without an 
auxiliary, are called Simple tenses; as, J love, I loved, Love 
thou ; and those which are formed by the combination of the verb 
or its participles with auxiliaries, are called Compound tenses ; 
as, I shall love ; I have loved ; he is writing. 

Conjugation of the Regular Active-transitive Verb, Love. 
ROOT. TO LOYE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Love, Loved, Loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. (Simple Form.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thou lovest, or You *love, 2. Ye or You love, 

3. He loves, or loveth ; 3. They love. 

(Emphatic Form.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. (Simple Form.) 

Singular. Plaral. 

1. I love, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

(Emphatic Form.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love ; 3. They did love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 



• In the common or familiar style, the pronoun you is used in 
the second person singular, as well as plural, always, however, 
with a plural verb. The pronouns thou and ye, are used in the 
sacred or solemn style. Ye, being seldom used, and the verb 
never varied by it, is omitted in the other tenses, for the sake of 
brevity. 



90 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; 3. They shall or will love. 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

i i 

2. Love (thou), or Do thou 2. Love (ye or you), or Do 

love, you love. 

3. ..... 3 

Obs. — Although the imperative mood is generally used only in 
the second person, yet there are some idiomatic expressions so 
anomalous in construction as to be difficult to analyse, and seem 
to be, more properly, the first or third person of this mood. 
Indeed, it is difficult, by any circumlocution, to recognize them as 
being in any other persons. Such are the following : — Blessed be 
he that blesseth thee, and cursed be he that curseth thee." " My 
soul turn from them ; — turn we to survey." " Hallowed be Thy 
name." " Be it enacted." " Be it remembered." 






ETYMOLOGY. 91 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must love, 1. We may, can, or must 

love, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. You may, can, or must 
must love, love, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 

love ; love. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should love, or should love, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would, 

wouldst, or shouldst love, or should love, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should love ; or should love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must 

loved, have loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. You may, can, or must 

must have loved, have loved, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 
have loved ; have loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have loved, or should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would, 

wouldst, or shouldst have or should have loved, 
loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should have loved : or should have loved. 



92 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. (Simple Form.) 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

(Emphatic Foim.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do love, 1. If we do love, 

2. If thou do love, 2. If you do love, 

3. If he do love ; 3. If they do love. 

Obs. 1. — The remaining tenses of this mood, are similar to the 
correspondent tenses of the indicative, with some conjunction, 
expressing doubt or contingency, prefixed, except that the aux- 
iliary shalt, shall, instead of wilt, will, is used in the second and 
third persons of the second-future tense. 

Obs. 2. — Although only the conjunction if is here prefixed to 
the verb, the conjunctions though, lest, unless, and the like, may, 
with equal propriety, be also occasionally used; as, " Though 1 
love," " Lest he love," &c. 

Obs. 3. — The present tense (simple form,) is properly an ellip- 
tical form of the future, — an auxiliary denoting future time being 
understood ; as, " If I love, If thou love," &c, for, " If I shall or 
will love, If thou shalt or wilt love," &c. 

Obs. 4. — In the present tense, (emphatic form,) the auxiliary 
do, as well as the principal verb, is also used without any personal 
termination ; as, " If now thou do prosper my way which I go." 
— Gen. xxiv. 42. " If thou do repent." " That the shame of 
thy nakedness do not appear." — Rev. iii. 18. "If he do not 
utter it." — Lev. v. 1. " If thou do pardon, whosoever pr ay." — 
Shakspeare. 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

Obs. 5. — The subjunctive form is sometimes used after adverbs, 
such, as till, until, before, when, &c ; as, " Ye do show the Lord's 
death till he come" " Blow till thou burst thy wind." — Shaks- 
peare. " Until the day dawn, and the day-star arise in your 
hearts." " Before it come to pass." " Before the cock crow." 
In the second and third persons of the second-future tense, the 
auxiliary shalt, shall, only is used ; thus, " He will have com- 
pleted the work by midsummer," is the indicative form ; but the 
subjunctive is, " If he shall have completed the work by midsum- 
mer." " When ye shall have done all those things which are 
commanded you." — Luke xvii. 10. " Then cometh the end, 
when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the 
Father ; when he shall have put down all rule, and all authority 
and power." — 1 Cor. xv. 24. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To love. 

Perfect Tense. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. 

Perfect, Loved. 

Compound Perfect, Having loved. 



TJie Auxiliary and Irregular Neuter Verb Be, is conjugated as . 
follows : 

ROOT. TO BE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Be or am. Was. Been. 



94 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is ;* 3. They are. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; 3. They shall or will be. 



* Be was formerly used in the present indicative ; as, fct I think 
it be thine indeed ; for thou liest in it." — Shakespeare. " There 
be of Protestants," &c. — Milton. " What be these two olive 
branches ?" — " Knowest thou not what these be ?" — Zech. iv. 12, 
13. "We be twelve brethren." — Gen. xlii. 32. Its use in this 
mood nnd tense is now wholly obsolete. 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 











IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


















PRESENT TENSE. 










1. 

2. 
3 


Be 


(th 


Singular. 

1. . 
ou) or Do thou be, 2. Be (ye 
you be. 
3. . 


Plural. 

or you), 


or 


Do 



POTENTIAL MOOD, 

PRESENT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be, 1. We may, can, or must be, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. You may, can, or must 

must be, be, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 

be; be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should be, or should be, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would, 

wouldst, or shouldst be, or should be, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should be : or should be. 



96 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must 
been, have been, 

2. Thou mayst, canst or 2. You may, can, or must 

must have been, have been, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. He may, can, or must 

have been : have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have been, or should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been, 
been. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should have been ; or should have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, or Were I, 1. If we were, or Were we^ 

2. If thou wert, or Wert 2. If you were, or Were 

thou, you, 

3. If he were, or Were he ; 3. If they were, or Were 

they. 

Obs. 1. — The remaining tenses of this mood, are similar to the 
correspondent tenses of the indicative, except that shalt, shall, 
only is used in the second-future tense. 






ETYMOLOGY, 97 

Obs. 2. — The present tense of this mood implies uncertainty of 
a fact ; and the imperfect tense implies a negation of its existence. 
As in the case of a person calling on me for a book ; if I am 
uncertain whether I have it or not, I answer, " if the book be in 
my library, or if I have the book, you shall be welcome to it ;" 
but if I am certain that I have not the book, I say, " if the book 
were in my library, or if I had the book, it should be at your 
service " 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be. 

Perfect Tense, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being, 

Perfect, Been, 

Co7npound Perfect, Having been. 

PASSIVE VERBS. 

62. Passive Verbs are conjugated by adding 
the perfect participle of an active-transitive 
verb to the auxiliary be, through all its 
changes of moods, tenses, persons, and num- 
bers ; thus, from the active-transitive verb 
" Love" is formed the passive, "I am loved, 
I was loved, I shall be loved" &c. 

Obs. 1. — Passive verbs are formed only from active-transitive 
verbs. When an active verb is converted into the passive form, 
the object of the action becomes the subject of the passive verb, 
and the nominative or agent of the active verb usually follows it, 
and is governed by the preposition by ; as, the sentences, " Brutus 
killed Caesar ," " David slew Goliah," are made passive by saying, 
" Caesar was killed by Brutus," " Goliah was slain by David." 



98 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2. — As no object can be acted upon by active-intransitive 
or neuter verbs, they neither admit of an objective case after 
them, nor of a passive form or construction. 

Obs. 3. — The verb to be, signifies to exist, and has eleven varia- 
tions to denote its manifold applications ; namely, am, art, is, 
are, was, wast, were, wert, be, been, and being. Every passive 
verb must be composed of one of these variations, and the perfect 
participle of some active- transitive verb. When thus incorporated 
or combined, the passive verb will always be in the same mood, 
tense, person, and number that the neuter verb be would be in, 
if the participle were not added. 

Obs. 4. — The passive form of a verb is convenient to use, when 
we do not know, or when we know, and do not wish to expose the 
name of the agent or actor ; thus, instead of saying, " John stole 
my knife," I can say, " My knife was stolen," without exposing 
the name of the thief. 



Conjugation of the Regular Passive Verb, Be Loved. 

ROOT. TO BE LOVED. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Pei'fect ParticipU 


Love, 


Loved, 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 


Loved. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 99 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved, 3. They were loved. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved, 3. They have been loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved, 3. They had been loved. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. You shall or will be loved, 
loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved, 3. They shall or will be 

loved. 

SECOND-FUTUR.E TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. You will have been loved, 
loved, 

3. He will have been loved, 3. They will have been loved. 



100 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 1. . . . ■ . 

2. Be (thou) loved, or Do 2. Be (ye or you) loved, or 

thou be loved, Do you be loved. 
3 3 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. We may, can, or must be 
loved, loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. You may, can, ox must be 

must be loved, loved, 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must 
loved, be loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
should be loved, or should be loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst be or should be loved, 
loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should be loved, or should be loved. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must 
been loved, have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. You may, can, or must 
must have been loved, have been loved, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 
have been loved, have been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 101 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could would, 
should have been loved, or should have been 

loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. You might, could, would, 
wouldst, or shouldst have or should have been 
been loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should have been or should have been 
loved, loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural* 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved, 3. If they be loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, or Were 1. If we were loved, or Were 
I loved, we loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, or 2. If you were loved, or 
Wert thou loved, Were you loved, 

3. If he were loved, or Were, 3. If they were loved, or 
he loved, Were they loved. 

Obs. — The remaining tenses of this mood, except the second- 
future, are similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, To be loved. 
Perfect, To have been loved. 



102 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present, Being loved. 

Perfect, Loved. 

Compound Perfect, Having been loved. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

63. Active and neuter verbs are conju- 
gated in the Progressive form, by adding 
their present participle to the auxiliary verb 
be, through all the moods and tenses ; as, " I 
am reading; they have been running; we 
were sitting" &c. This form of the verb is 
used to express the continuance of an action, 
or a state of being, and is, on particular 
occasions, preferable to the simple form. 

Obs. L — The combination of the verb be with the present parti- 
ciple, is also sometimes called the Definite form, because it 
denotes the time more definitely than the other which is styled 
the Indefinite form ; as, Definite, " I was writing ; Indefinite, I 
wrote." 

Obs. 2. — The verb be, when the present participle is added to 
it, becomes an auxiliary, and serves to denote the mood, tense, 
person, and number of the verb ; and the participle becomes the 
principal part of the verb, in the same manner as the perfect par- 
ticiple does in the passive verb. The signification of the verb, may 
be either active-transitive or intransitive, or it may be neuter, 
which is invariably determined by the participle. 

Obs. 3. — As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, performs 
the offices of a verb, through all the moods and tenses ; and as it 
implies the idea of time, and when transitive, governs the objec- 
tive case of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do ; 
is it not manifest, that it is a species or form of the verb, and that 
it cannot be properly considered as a distinct part of speech ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



103 



Synopsis of the Active-transitive verb, To Read, conjugated 
in the Progressive form, as follows : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. I am reading.* 

Imperfect. _ I was reading. 

Perfect. I have been reading. 

Pluperfect. I had been reading. 

First-future. I shall or will be reading. 

Second-future. I shall have been reading. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. < 2. Be (thou) reading, or Do thou be reading. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present. I may, can, or must be reading. 

Imperfect. I might, could, would, or should be 

reading. 

Perfect. I may, can, or must have been reading. 

Pluperfect; I might, could, would, or should have 
been reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. If I be reading. 

Imperfect. If I were reading. 

Perfect. If I have been reading. 

Pluperfect. If I had been reading. 

First-future. If I shall or will be reading. 

Second-future. If I shall have been reading. 

* These forms of expression are adapted only to particular acts. 
Verbs which denote general habits, or affections of the mind, as, 
love, hate, know, &c, do not admit of the Progressive form. We 
have therefore, in this case, departed from the model verb. 



104 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Perfect. 


To be reading. 

To have been reading. 




PARTICIPLES. 


Present. 
Perfect. 


Reading. 



Compound Perfect. Having been reading. 
INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

64. Verbs are used interrogatively only in 
the indicative and potential moods ; and they 
are conjugated by placing the nominative 
after them, in the simple tenses ; as, " Lovest 
thou me V 9 " Have you any money ?" And 
after the first auxiliary in the compound 
tenses ; as, " Did he come ?" " May we 
go 



?» 



Synopsis of the Irregular Active-Intransitive verb, Go, 
Interrogatively conjugated as follows :— 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Do I go ? 

Imperfect. Did I go ? 

Perfect. Have I gone ? 

Pluperfect. Had I gone ? 

First-future. Shall, or will I go ? 

Second-future. Shall I have gone ? 



ETYMOLOGY, 105 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. May, can, or must I go ? 

Imperfect. Might, could, would, or should I go ? 

Perfect. ■ May, can, or must I have gone ? 

Pluperfect. Might, could, would, or should I have gone ? 



NEGATIVE FORM. 

65. Verbs are conjugated negatively, by 
placing the adverb not after them, or the first 
auxiliary; and before the infinitive mood, 
and the participles; as, "Fear not, little 
flock;" " I have not seen him ;" " Not to hear 
her;" " Not having seen him." 

When the adverb never is used, it gen- 
erally occupies the same place as not, in the 
compound tenses. It commonly precedes 
the single verbs, except be, which it follows ; 
as, " She never sings" " We are never absent 



>> 



Synopsis of the Irregular Active- Transitive verb, To See, 
Conjugated Negatively, as follows : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. I see not, or I do not see. 

Imperfect. I saw not, or I did not see. 

Perfect. I have not seen. 

Pluperfect. I had not seen. 

First-future, I shall, or will not see. 

Second-future, I shall not have seen. 



106 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR- 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present. See, or see thou not, or Do thou not %on. 






POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. I may, or can not see. 
Imperfect. I might, could, would, or should not see. 
Perfect. I may, or can not have seen. 
Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should not have 
seen. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


If I see not, or do not see. 


Imperfect. 


If I saw not, or did not see 


Perfect. 


If I have not seen. 


Pluperfect.* 


If I had not seen. 


First-future. 


If I shall, or will not see. 


Second-future. 


If I shall not have seen. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present 


. Not to see. 


Perfect. 


Not to have seen. 




PARTICIPLES. 



Present. Not seeing. 

Perfect. Not seen. 

Compound Perfect. Not having seen. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



107 



66. Verbs are used interrogatively and 
negatively, only in the indicative and potential 
moods ; and they are conjugated by placing 
the nominative and the adverb not, after 
them, or the first auxiliary ; as, " Do I not 
love him ?" " Should I not have loved him V y 



Synopsis of the Irregular Active- Transitive verb, To 
Write, Interrogativley and Negatively Conjugated, as 
follows : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. Do I not write ? 

Imperfect. Did I not write ? 

Perfect. Have I not written ? 

Pluperfect. Had I not written ? 

First-future. Shall, or will I not write ? 

Second-future. Shall I not have written ? 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. May, can, or must I not write ? 
Imperfect. Might, could, would, or should I not write ? 
Perfect. May can, or must I not have written ? 
Pluperfect. Might, could, would, or should I not have 
written ? 



EMPHATIC FORM. 



67. Verbs are conjugated in the Emphatic 
form, by placing do and did before them, in 
the present and imperfect tenses of the indi- 



108 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

cative and subjunctive moods ; and do before 
the nominative, and them in the imperative. 
They are almost always used in asking ques- 
tions, or when emphasis or strong negation 
is to be expressed ; as, " Does he learn ?" 
" Did he intend to go V\ " I do know it to 
be true ;" " I did see him." " Do thou go ;'* 
" I do ljot believe it." 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

68. Defective verbs are those which are 
used only in some of the moods and tenses. 

All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, 
are defective. 

The following is a list of them :— 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Can, could, 

May, might, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

quoth, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 



Obs. 1. — Must and Quoth are never varied. The others are 
varied in the second person singular only. Will, as a principal 
verb, is regular and complete. Beware, is compounded of the 
verb be and the adjective aware. It is used only in those tenses 
in which the word be itself can be conjugated. 

Obs. 2. — Ought and Quoth are never used as auxiliaries. 
Ought has no variation, except oughtest in the second person sin- 






ETYMOLOGY, 



109 



gular, solemn style. It is always followed by a verb in the 
infinitive mood, which determines its tense, so that when the 
infinitive is in the present tense, so is ought ; as, " I ought to go 
now." And when it is followed by the perfect infinitive, it is in 
the past tense ; as, " I ought to have gone yesterday." 

Obs. 3. — Quoth is an old verb, signifying to say. It is used 
only in the first and third persons singular, in the past tense, 
invariably preceding its nominative ; thus, Quoth I ; Quoth he ; 
which are the same as, Said I ; Said he. It is now seldom 
used. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

69. An irregular verb is that which does 
not form its imperfect or past tense and per- 
fect participle, by adding ed or d to the 
present ; as, see saw, seen. 

Obs. — The irregular verbs are chiefly monosyllables, and of 
Saxon origin. The following is a list of them as they are now 
generally used. Those marked R have both the regular and 
irregular forms. 

LIST OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Present. Imperfect 
Abide, abode, 


Perfect Participle. 
abode. 


Arise, arose, 


arisen. 


Be,* or am, was, 
Bear, to bring forth, bare, 
Bear, to carry. bore, 
Beat, beat, 


been, 
born, 
borne, 
beaten. 


Begin, began, 


begun. 



* Be is properly the root of this verb, though, unlike all the 
other verbs, another form of it is used in the first person singular 
of the present indicative 



110 


GRAPHIC GRAMMAR 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle, 


Bend, 


bent, 


bent. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, or bade, 


bidden, or bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke. 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


caught. R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, or chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


C1 ™l e i t0adhere0r }K™VI.AK. 




Cleave, to split. 


cleft, or clove, 


cleft, or clove. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clad, R. 


clad, R. 


Come, 


came, 


come, 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


crowed, 


Creep, 


* crept, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, to venture. 


durst, 


dared, 


Dare, to challenge , 


R. 




Deal, 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, 


dug. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreamt, R. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk, or drank 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


ate, or eat, 


eaten. 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


got, or gotten. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilt. R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


girt. R. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven. R. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hung. R. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn. R. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, or hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R, 


knelt. R. 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


knit. R. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie, to lie down* 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lit, R. 


lit. R. 



Ill 



112 

Present. 

Load, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Pay. 

Put, 

Quit, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Show, 

Shoot, 

Shut, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Sing, ' 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 



GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



Imperfect. 


Perfeet Participle. 


loaded, 


laden. R. 


lost, 


lost. 


made, 


made. 


met, 


met. 


mowed, 


mown. R. 


paid, 


paid. 


put, 


put. 


quit, R. 


quit. R. 


read, 


read. 


rent, 


rent. 


rid, 


rid. 


rode, 


rode, or ridden. 


rung, or rang, 


rung. 


rose, 


risen. 


rived, 


riven. 


ran, 


run. 


sawed, 


sawn. R. 


said, ( 


said. 


saw, 


seen. 


sought, 


sought. 


sold, 


sold. 


sent, 


sent. 


set, 


set. 


shook, 


shaken. 


shaved, 


shaven. R. 


sheared, 


shorn. R. 


shed, 


shed. 


shone, R. 


shone. R. 


shod, 


shod. 


showed, 


shown. 


shot, 


shot. 


shut, 


shut. 


shred, 


shred. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


sung, or sang, 


sung. 


sunk, or sank, 


sunk. 


sat, 


sat. 


slew, 


slain. 











ETYMOLOGY. 


] 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, or slid. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit. R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, or smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown. R. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


split. R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, or spat, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, or sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, or strid, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, or stricken. 


String, 


strung, R. 


strung. R. 


Strive, 


strove, R. 


striven. R. 


Strow, or Strew, 


strowed, or strewed 3 


( strown. R. 
\ strewn. R. 


Swear, 


sworn, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R. 


sweat. R. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen. R. 


fewim, 


swum, or swam, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, R. 


thriven. R, 


Throw, 


threw, & 


thrown. 



113 



114 



GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



Present. 
Thrust, 


Imperfect. 
thrust, 


Perfect Participle 
thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, or trod. 


Wake, 


woke, R. 


waked. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen. R. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 

Win, 

Wind, 


wept, 
won, 
wound, R. 


wept, 
won. 
wound. 


Wont, 


wont, R. 


wont. R. 


Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 


wrought, R. 
wrung, R. 
wrote, 


wrought. R. 

wrung. 

written. 



Obs. — In the preceding list, it will be observed, that some of the 
verbs are conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly. There is a 
preference to be given to some of these, which custom and judgment 
must determine. Those preterits and participles which are first 
mentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible. The compound 
irregular verbs, such as, befall, bespeak, &c, which follow the 
simple form, and also some obsolete words, are here omitted. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 



" Art improves nature J 7 

Art is a common noun, of the third person, the singular 

number, and in the nominative case, and governs the 
verb improves, according to Rule II, which says, 
" The nominative case governs the verb in person and 
number.' 9 

improves.. is a verb, which is a word that signifies to be, to do, or 
to svffer, — this signifies to do; regular, — because it 
forms its imperfect tense, and perfect participle, by the 
addition of d or ed, to the verb ; active-transitive, — the 
action of the agent or nominative passes over to some 



ETYMOLOGY. 115 

object ; indicative mood — it indicates or declares a thing ; 
present tense — it denotes present time ; and in the third 
person, singular number, agreeing with its nominative 
case art, according to Rule VII, which says, " A verb 
must agree with its nominative case in person and 
number." 
nature, .is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
and in the objective case, governed by the active-transi- 
tive verb, improves, according to Rule XII, which says, 
" Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case." 

I love my parents. Thou honorest them. He encour- 
ages us. They have deceived me. We can learn our 
lessons. You should answer the question. Let us im- 
prove our time. Prepare thy lesson. Let her depart. 
Horses run. A ship sails. The wind blows. The sun 
shines. Virtue will be rewarded. Our hopes did flatter 
us. They strive to learn. Prosperity gains friends, and 
adversity tries them. What is it, that thou hast done ? 
A little attention will rectify some errors. He labored to 
still the tumult. The more we are blessed, the more 
grateful we should be. When we do our utmost, no more 
should be required of us. Such is the emptiness of human 
enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. 
A strong sense of duty, without any direct reference to 
consequences, ought to be our prevailing principle of 
action. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is 
, a real defect in character. To have conquered himself 
was his highest praise. Promoting others 7 welfare, they 
advanced their own interest. Having resigned his office, 
he retired. 

QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF THE VERB. 

1. What is a Verb? 

2. By what are verbs modified ? 

3. Into how many Classes are verbs divided, with 
respect to their form ? Xame them. 

4. What is a Regular verb ? 



116 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

5. What is an Irregular verb ? 

6. What is a Defective verb ? 

7. Into how many Classes are verbs divided, with 
respect to their signification ? Name them. 

8. What is an Active-transitive verb ? 

9. What is an Active-intransitive verb ? 

10. What is a Passive verb ? 

11. What is a Neuter verb ? 

12. What other kinds of verbs are there ? 

13. What are Auxiliary verbs ? 

14. What are Impersonal verbs ? 

15. What are Moods ? 

16. How many moods are there ? Name them. 
11. What is the Indicative mood ? 

18. What is the Imperative mood ? 

19. What the Potential mood ? 

20. What the Subjunctive ? 

21. What the Infinitive ? 

22. What does tense signify ? How many tense? are 
there ? Name them. 

23. How many Tenses are there in the indicative and 
subjunctive moods ? 

24. What tense has the Imperative mood ? 

25. What tenses has the Potential mood ? 

26. What tenses has the Infinitive ? 

27. What is the Present tense ? 

28. What is the Imperfect tense ? 

29. What is the Perfect tense ? 

30. What is the Pluperfect tense ? 

31. What is the First-future tense ? 

32. What is the Second-future tense ? 

33. What is a Participle ? 

34. How many participles are there ? Name them. 

35. What is the Present participle ? 

36. What is the Perfect participle ? 

37. What is the Compound Perfect participle ? 

38. How many persons and numbers have verbs ? 

39. What is the Root of a verb ? and where founr' ? 
and why so called ? 



. 



ETYMOLOGY. lit 

40. What are the Principal parts of a verb ? 

41. How many principal parts are there ? Name 
them. 

42. What are the Signs of the moods and tenses ? 

43. What sigus, has the present tense, of the indicative 
mood ? and how is it formed ? 

44. What signs, has the imperfect, indicative ? and 
how is it formed ? 

[^r* Let the pupils be thus interrogated, upon all the interven- 
ing signs and formations of the other moods and tenses, and of the 
participles, until they become perfectly familiar with the whole 
of them.] 

61. What is the Conjugation of a verb ? 

62. How are Passive verbs conjugated ? 

63. How are verbs conjugated in the Progressive 
form ? and what does it express ? Give the synopsis in 
the different moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

64. In what moods, are verbs conjugated interroga- 
tively ? and how ? Give a synopsis in each person and 
number. 

65. How are verbs conjugated negatively ? Give the 
synopsis. 

66. How are verbs conjugated interrogatively and nega- 
tively ? 

67. How are verbs conjugated in the Emphatic form ? 

68. What are Defective verbs ? Name them. 

69. What are irregular verbs ? Name them, and the 
principal parts of each of them. 



ADVERBS 



1. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a 
verb, a participle, an adjective, or another ad- 
verb, to express some quality or circumstance 



118 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

respecting it; as, "He reads well;" " he is 
secretly plotting mischief;" "a truly good 
man ;" " he writes very correctly" 

Obs. — Adverbs perform the same office to verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, that adjectives perform to nouns. 

2. Some adverbs, like adjectives, admit of 
three degrees of comparison — the Positive, 
the Comparative, and the Superlative. They 
are also compared in the same manner as 
adjectives, and have the same correspondents 
of comparison ; as, Pos. as soon as ; Comp. 
sooner than ; Sup. the soonest of. 

CLASSES. 

3. Adverbs are usually divided into four 
general classes, according to their import ; 
namely, adverbs of time, place, manner, and 
degree. 

4. Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are 
generally joined to verbs or participles, and 
denote when, where, and how their action is, 
or will be done ; as, " The news of the acci- 
dent, published yesterday, was hastily circu- 
lated everywhere in the city, and anxiously 
read by all/ 5 

5. Adverbs of degree are more frequently 
prefixed to adjectives or other adverbs, to 
express or modify their degrees of significa- 



ETYMOLOGY. 119 

tion ; as, Happy, more happy, most happy ; 
less happy, least happy ; very happy, extremely 
happy ; Well, very well, extremely well ; bet- 
ter, much better, a great deal better. 

Obs. 1. — Many adverbs are formed by annexing the prepositions 
of, to, by, with, in, for, &c, to the adverbs of place here, there, 
and where ; as, hereof, thereof whereof ; hereto, thereto, 
whereto, &c. 

Each of these compounds has the force of the preposition 
annexed, and this, that, or which ; as, Hereof, for of this ; there- 
of, for of that ; ivhereof, for of which > &c. They are not so often 
used now as formerly. Therefore, compounded of there and for, 
has the force of the preposition and the demonstrative that, and 
is equivalent to for that reason. 

Obs. 2. — There are also some words which become adverbs by 
prefixing the particle a to them ; as, aside, athirst, ahead, anew, 
afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, apart, &c. 

6. Adverbs may generally be known as 
follows : — 

1. Those of time, by answering the ques- 
tion, When ? or how often ? 

2. Those of place, Where ? whither ? 
whence ? 

3. Those of manner, how ? 

4. And those of degree, how much ? 

7. Each of the four general classes of 
adverbs may be subdivided, as follows : — 

SUBDIVISIONS. 
OF TIME.. 
Present ; as, Now, to-day, yet. 

Past; as, Yesterday, lately, before, already, recently, long 
since, long ago, heretofore, hitherto. 



120 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Future ; as, To-morrow, soon, hereafter, presently, henceforth, 
instantly, immediately, not yet, by and by, ere long, straightway, 
henceforwards, afterwards. 

Definite ; as, Once, twice, thrice, or three times, again. 

Indefinite ; as, Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, seldom, fre- 
quently, occasionally, rarely, sometimes, now and then, hourly, 
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, always, when, then, 
ever, never, while, or whilst, awhile, ago, before, after, till, 
until. 

OF PLACE. 

In which; as, Here, there, where, hereabout, thereabout, 
whereabout, somewhere, elsewhere, anywhere, everywhere, 
nowhere, within, without, yonder. 

To, or towards which ; as, Hither, thither, whither, up, down, 
in, out, back, forth, upwards, downwards, outwards, backwards, 
forwards, homewards, below, above. 

From which ; as, Hence, thence, whence, away, off. 

Order of; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, sixth- 
ly, &c, lastly, finally. 

OF MANNER. 

Manner or quality ; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, 
quickly, prudently, softly, namely, particularly, necessarily, 
asunder, across, apart, together, somehow, and a great many 
others, which are formed by adding ly to Participles and Quali- 
fying Adjectives, or by changing le into ly ; as, loving, lov- 
ingly ; learned, learnedly ; bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerfully ; 
able, ably ; admirable, admirably ; and when the adjective ends 
in y, the y is changed into i ; as speedy, speedily ; pretty, pret- 
tily. Adverbs of this kind are the most numerous. 

Doubt ; as, Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 

Affirmation; as, Yes, yea, ay, truly, verily, surely, really, 
indeed, amen, undoubtedly, certainly, doubtless. 

JVegation ; as, No, nay, not, not at all, nowise, by no means. 

Interrogation ; as, How ? why ? wherefore ? where ? whence ? 
whither ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 121 

OF DEGREE. 

Comparison ; as, More, most, less, least, better, best, worse, 
worst, very, rather, far, fast, greatly, nearly, besides, almost, so, 
as, too, thus, equally, mostly, else, chiefly, quite, altogether, 
excessively, exceedingly, fully, perfectly, generally, extrava- 
gantly, intolerably, principally, especially. 

Quantity; as, Much, little, sufficiently, abundantly, only, 
enough, how much, how great, hardly, scarcely, nearly, merely, 
barely, partly, partially. 

8. Some of the adverbs of time are com- 
pared like adjectives; thus, Soon, sooner , 
soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest. 

9. Of the adverbs of place, forth only 
admits of comparison ; as, forth, further, fur- 
thest. 

10. Adverbs of manner or quality, ending 
in ly, are compared by prefixing to them, 
more and most, or less and least ; as, wisely, 
more wisely, most wisely ; less wisely, least 
wisely. A few of them are irregularly com- 
pared ; as, well, better, best ; badly, or ill, 
worse, worst. 

11. Some words are used both as adjectives 
and adverbs ; as, little, less, least ; better, best ; 
much, more, most; only, &c. When they 
qualify nouns, they are adjectives ; and when 
they refer to adjectives, or other adverbs, they 
are adverbs. 



122 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1. — An adverbial phrase consists of two or more words 
joined or "taken together; as, forasmuch, now-a-days, by-and- 
by, in general, now-and-then, in like manner, not at all, to and 
fro, a great deal, of a truth, &c. 

Obs. 2. — The adverb serves to express compendiously, in one 
word, what must otherwise require two or more ; thus, here is 
equivalent to, in this place ; there, in that place ; where, in what 
place; hither, to this place; thither, to that place; whither, to 
what place; as, "He acted prudently," that is, in a prudent 
manner ; " He spoke eloquently" that is, in an eloquent man- 
ner ; "He acted wisely," instead of he acted with wisdom ; "He 
acted foolishly ," meaning, that he acted like, a fool. 



QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE CHART OF ADVERBS. 

1. What is an adverb ? 

2. Do adverbs admit of comparison ? and in what 
respects are they like adjectives ? 

3. Into how many general classes, are adverbs divided ? 

4. Which classes of adverbs are generally joined to 
verbs or participles ? 

5. Which adverbs are more frequently prefixed to 
adjectives or other adverbs ? and what to express ? 

6. How may the different classes of adverbs be gene- 
rally known ? 

^. Name the subdivisions of the different classes of 
adverbs ? 

What are those of time, ? Name some of them. 

What are those of place ? 

What are those of manner ? and how are many of 
them formed ? 

What are those of degree ? Name some of them. 

8. Are any of the adverbs of time compared ? and how ? 

9. Are any of the adverbs of place compared ? 

10. How are adverbs of manner or quality, ending in 
ly compared ? Are any of them irregularly compared ? 

11. How are those words which are used both as adjec- 
tives and abverbs compared and distinguished ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 



123 



PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word placed before a 
noun or a pronoun, to connect it with another 
word, and to show the relation between 
them; as, "He went from New York to 
Boston with me." 

Obs. — Prepositions are generally placed or put before nouns ; 
and hence the derivation of the term from the Latin words, pros, 
before, and positus, placed. 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions : — 



About, 


at, 


concerning, 


notwith- 


) to, 


above, 


athwart, 


down, 


standing, 


) touching, 


according 


to before, 


during, 


of, 


toward, or > 
towards, ) 


across, 


behind, 


except, 


on, 


after, 


below, 


excepting, 


out of, 


under, 


against, 


beneath, 


for, 


over, 


underneath, 


along, 


beside, or 


) from, 
5 in, 


regarding, 


unto, 


amid, 


besides, 


respecting, 


upon, 


amidst, 


between, 


into, 


since, 


with, 


among, 


betwixt, 


instead of, 


through, 


without, 


amongst, 


beyond, 


near, 


throughout, 


within. 


around, 


by, 


nigh, 







Obs. 1. — A preposition may be known by its admitting, after 
it, a personal pronoun, in the objective case ; as, with, for, to, 
&c, will allow the objective case after them ; with him, for her, 
to them, &c. 



Obs. 2. — Combinations of two or more words, like the following, 
may be called prepositional phrases : — Because of, according to, 
on account of, for the sake of, relating to, as to, &c. 



124 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a word that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences, so as out of two 
or more, to make but one sentence. It 
sometimes connects only words ; as, " Thou 
and he are happy, because you are good j" 
"two and three are five/' 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes : 
— the Copulative and the Disjunctive. 

A copulative conjunction is that which serves 
to connect or continue a sentence, by expres- 
sing an addition, a supposition, a cause ; as, 
" He and his brother reside in London ;" " I 
will go if he will accompany me." " I sub- 
mitted ; for it was vain to resist." 

A disjunctive conjunction is that which 
serves, not only to connect and continue a 
sentence, but also to express opposition of 
meaning ; as, " Though he was frequently 
reproved, yet he did not reform ;" " they 
came with her, but went away without her." 

The following are the principal conjunctions : — 
The Copulative ; And, if, that, both, for, because, since, as. 
The Disjunctive ; Or, nor, either, neither, yet, though^ 
although, lest, unless, but, whether , lest, than, save, notwith- 
standing. 



KTTMOLOGY. 125 



INTERJECTIONS. 

-* 

All Interjection is a word thrown into a sen- 
tence, to express some strong or sudden 
emotion of the mind ; as, Ah ! For shame ! 
Oh! Alas! 

Obs. 1. — Any unconnected word or phrase, expressive of emo- 
tion, wonder, pain, joy, grief, &c, may be considered an inter- 
jection ; as, heigh ho! ungracious wretch ! delightful thought! 
well- a- day ! 

Obs. 2. — The following are the principal interjections, accord- 
ing to the different passions which they serve to express. Those 
which* intimate earnestness or grief, are, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! 
Such as are expressive of contempt, are, pish! tush! pshaw! 
poh ! pugh ! Of wonder, heigh! really! strange! ha! Of 
calling, hem ! ho ! soho, holla ! Of aversion or disgust, foh ! fie ! 
away ! off! begone ! avaunt ! Of a call of the attention, lo ! 
behold ! hark ! look ! see ! Of requesting silence, hush ! hist ! 
Of salutation, welcome! hail! all hail ! 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

1. Syntax treats of the agreement, gov- 
ernment, and arrangement of words, in sen- 
tences. 

2. A sentence is an assemblage of words, 
making complete sense. 



126 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

3. Sentences are of two kinds, Simple, and 
Compound. 

4. A simple sentence has in it, but one subject 
or nominative, and one finite verb ; as, " Life 
is short." 

Obs. — Finite verbs are those to which person and number 
appertain, and are so called to distinguish them from verbs in the 
infinitive mood, which have no respect to person nor number. 

5. A compound sentence consists of two or 
more simple sentences connected together ; 
as, " Life is short, and art is long ;" " Idle- 
ness produces want, vice, and misery." 

6. Compound sentences are divided into 
Members ; and these, if complex, are subdi- 
vided into Clauses; as, "The ox knoweth 
his owner, and the ass his master's crib ; 
but Israel doth not know, my people do not 
consider." 

7. A Phrase is an idiomatic expression 
without affirmation ; as, " To speak freely," 
"To be plain with you ;" " Under these cir- 
cumstances," &c. 

8. The principal parts of a simple sentence 
are, the Subject, or nominative ; the Attribute, 
or verb ; and the Object, that is, the word or 
phrase upon which the verb acts, when it is 
transitive. 



SYNTAX. 127 

9. With the exception of the subject, 
attribute, and object, all the other parts of a 
sentence are denominated Adjuncts. 

10. Syntax principally consists of two 
parts, Concord and Government. 

11. Concord is the agreement which one 
word has with another, in person, number, 
gender, case, mood, or tense. 

12. Government is that power which one 
word has over another, in determining its 
mood, tense, or case. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 



RULE I.— ARTICLES. 

I. The indefinite article a or an agrees 
with nouns in the singular number only, 
individually or collectively; as, 

" A man caught a flock of birds with a net." 
11 1 saw an eagle sitting upon an old tree." 

II. The definite article the agrees with 
nouns, both in the singular and the plural 
number; as, 

" The stone which the builders rejected, t/ie same is 
become the head of the corner," 



128 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1. — A noun without any article before it, to limit its signi- 
fication, is generally taken in its widest sense ; as, " Knowledge 
is proper for man" that is, "for all mankind; "Man, being 
mortal, soon fades away and dies ;" " Children should obey their 
parents." 

Obs. 2. — When two or more adjectives are joined together, and 
their qualities belong to things individually different, though of 
the same name, the article should be prefixed to each separately ; 
as, " A black and a white cow ;" which means two cows, one 
black, and the other white. But when the adjectives are 
descriptive of one and the same thing, the article should be pre- 
fixed only to the first of them; as, " A black and white cow;" 
which means, one cow of two colors. 

Obs. 3. — When the adjectives themselves express qualities or 
epithets so inconsistent as thereby to indicate clearly that they 
must belong to individually different things, though expressed by 
one general term, the article the may be either prefixed to each 
of the adjectives separately, with the noun in the singular num- 
ber, or to the first only, with it in the plural ; as, M The old and 
the new testament;" or, " the old and new testaments;" "The 
North and the South Pole," or, " the North and South Poles ;" 
" The vernal and the autumnal equinox ," or, " the vernal and 
autumnal equinoxes ; " The North and the East river" or, " the 
North and East rivers" 



RULE II.— THE NOMINATIVE. 

The nominative case governs the verb in 
person and number ; as, 

u James is idle." 

u I am studying my lesson." 

" Thou hatest thy books." 

"He studies his lessons diligently .* 

" They behave well in school." 



ftYKTAX. ISO 

Obs, 1.— Every nominative case 9 except when absolute and 
independent, should belong to some verb, either expressed or 
implied. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative ca3e may be found by asking the 
question, Who ? Which ? or What ? and the word that 
answers the question, is the nominative ; as, in the sentence, 
" James is idle ;" ask the question, Who is idle ? answer, James ; 
James is, therefore, the nominative. 



EULE III.— APPOSITION. 

A noun, or a personal pronoun, signify- 
ing the same thing as a preceding noun or 
pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
case y as, 

"Paul the apostle." 

11 David the king." 

" I John saw these things." 

" Brutus killed Ccesar y him who had been his friend." 

11 The leader was taken, he who defied the law." 

" We men are mortal." 



RULE IV.— NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

A noun, or a pronoun, is put in the nomina- 
tive absolute, when its case is independent of 
any other word ; as, 

" Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." 

"I being in the way, the Lord led me." 

" The prodigal son having repented of his sins, his father 
forgave them ; he having returned his father received him 
into his arms." 

91 The pilgrim father s> where are they ?" 



130 GRAPKrC GRAMMAR. 

RULE V— NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT. 

A noun, or a pronoun, used as a term of 
address, is always put in the nominative of 
the second person, independently of the rest 
of the sentence, and is called the Nominative 
case independent ; as, 

" Plato y thou reasonest well." 

11 The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in 
ourselves." 

" I am, Sir, your humble servant." 

" Friends, Romans, Countrymen" 

11 Thou, to whom all creatures bow V 9 

41 ye hypocrites 1" 

41 Hail Columbia, happy land !" 



RULE VI.— NOUNS ABSOLUTE. 

Nouns, signifying numoer, measure , distance 3 
value, the time when, and how long, stand 
without a governing word ; as, 

" An army, twelve thousand strong, invaded Mexico." 

"A wall seven feet high, and three feet thick*-" 

" They traveled fifty miles a day." 

il His hat is worth five dollars." 

11 My brother went home last week." 

11 He staid in the city two months." 

Obs. — Many grammarians say, that the nouns of this class are 
in the objective case, governed by a preposition understood ; and 
some, that they are in the objective case absolute : and others, 
that they are in the case independent by ellipsis. In any case, 
no governing word is expressed, nor can any be supplied without 



SYNTAX, 131 

destroying the easy flow and conciseness of the expression, and 
making it sound awkwardly. Of such, Mr. Webster justly 
observes, that " they are peculiar idiomatic expressions, the 
remains of the early state of our language." 



RULE VII.— VERBS. 

A verb must agree with its nominative 
case in person and number ; as, 

" 1 love my parents." 
" Thou readest well." 
u He learns grammar." 
11 We are scholars." 
" You write legibly." 
"They sleep in a room." 

Obs. 1. — Every finite verb, that is, every verb, except in the 
infinitive mood, or the participle, must have a nominative case, 
either expressed or understood ; as, " Awake ; arise ;" that is, 
" Awake ye ; arise ye." 

Obs. 2. — The infinitive mood, or a part oj a sentence, is some- 
times put as the nominative case to the verb, which must always 
be in the third person singular ; as, " To be good is to be happy." 
" His being at enmity with Caesar, was the cause of perpetual 
discord." But when there are two or more infinitives, or distinct 
clauses, connected by and, the verb must agree with them in the 
plural number ; as, " To live temperately, and to exercise mode* 
rately, are the best preservatives of health." 



RULE VIII.— COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

When the nominative is a Collective noun, 
the verb or pronoun agreeing with it, may 



132 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

be either in the singular or the plural num- 
ber, according as the idea of unity or plural- 
ity is meant to be expressed ; as, 

" The council is unanimous in its decision." 
"The army is approaching its place of destination." 
" The parliament was dissolved." 
11 The nation is powerful." 

11 The council are divided in their political opinions." 
u The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief 
good." 

Obs. 1. — Most collective nouns admit both the singular and 
plural forms, and the verbs and pronouns should agree with them 
accordingly ; as, " The army was prepared for battle ;" " the 
armies were prepared for battle." " There is a flock of birds 
directing its flight to the South ; ,? " there are flocks of birds 
directing their flight to the South." 

Obs. 2. — Some collective nouns admit of a* plural construction 
only, and require plural verbs and pronouns to agree ifith them ; 
as, 

" The people are happy, and they enjoy peace." 

11 The rabble are riotous, because they are deluded" 

" The cattle are in their pasture." 

M The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of 
wooden shoes." 




KULE IX.— NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY AJYD. 

Two or more singular nominatives con- 
nected by and, must have verbs, nouns, and 
pronouns, to agree with them in the plural 
number ; as, 

"Demosthenes and Cicero were eloquent orators; they 
were friends to their respective countries." 



SYNTAX. 133 

"This man, his wife, and son, are happy ; they are exam- 
ples of fidelity and obedience. v 

"Thou and he were attentive scholars ; your lessons were 
always well recited." 

Obs. 1. — When two or more singular nouns are severally pre- 
ceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken sepa- 
rately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singular number ; 
as, M Each day, and each hour brings its portion of duty ;" 
"Every man, woman, and child -was numbered ;" " JYb slan- 
derer, and no tale bearer is worthy of confidence. " 

Obs. 2. — The adjunct clause, connected with a singular nom- 
inative, by the preposition with, does not require the verb or 
pronoun to be plural ; as, " The ship, with all her furniture, was 
destroyed. 11 (i The farm, with its appurtenances, was sold by 
auction." " The side A, with the sides B and C, composes the 
triangle." But, if the conjunction and be substituted for the 
preposition with, in each of these examples, then the verb should 
be plural. 

Obs. 3. — When a singular nominative is connected with an 
adjunct, by as Well as, which implies comparison, and not com- 
bination, the verb and pronoun should be in the singular num- 
ber ; as, M Caesar, as well as Cicero, teas admired for his 
eloquence." "The prince, as well as the people, was blame- 
worthy." 



RULE X.— NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR, OR JVOR. 

Two or more singular nominatives con- 
nected by or, or nor, must have verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns, to agree with them in the sin- 
gular number ; as, 

" Man's happiness or misery is in a great measure put 
into his own hands." 



134 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

"There is in many minds, neither knowledge nor under- 
standing." 

" When sickness, oppression, or reverse of fortune 
affects us, the sincerity of friendship is proved." 
- " Either thou or I am greatly mistaken." 

" Neither he nor she attends school regularly." 



RULE XI.— THE POSSESSIVE. 

A noun or a pronoun, in the possessive 
case, is governed by the name of the thing 
possessed; as, 

" In my Father's house, there are many mansions." 

" Milton's poems are sublime." 

M Men's minds are various." 

" Your sister's friend visited us." 

" My lesson is finished;" " Thy books are torn." 

" He loves his studies;" " She performs her duty." 

" We own our faults;" " I admire their virtues." 

" Your friend is faithful ;" " Our enemies are inflexible." 

" This book is mine ; the other is thine." 

"These toys are his ; those are hers." 

" This house is ours ; and that is yours." 

" Theirs is very commodious ; ours is disagreeable." 

Obs. 1. — When the name of the possessor is a complex noun, or 
consists of a noun made up of two or more terms put in apposition, 
Or compounded, the last word only admits the sign of the posses- 
sive ; as, " Julius Caesar's Commentaries." " John the Baptist's 
head." " The Commander-in-chief's tent." 

Obs. 2. — When two or more possessive nouns come together, 
implying conjoint possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed 
to the last only, and understood to the rest; as, "John and 
Eliza's books ;" " He lives north of Mason and Dixon's line ;" 
M This is my father, mother, and brother's advice." But, when 



SYNTAX. 135 

individual possession is implied, or any words intervene, the sign 
of the possessive should be annexed to each; as, "I had the 
physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's advice." " They 
are John's as well as Eliza's books." 



RULE XII.— VERBS. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objec- 
tive case ; as, 

" He teaches me." 
11 The scriptures direct us." 

11 Whom should I esteem more than the wise and the 
good ?" 

11 If ye love me, keep my commandments." 

Obs. 1. — Active-transitive verbs, of naming, calling, choosing, 
electing, making, &c, are often followed by two objectives in 
apposition to each other; as, "They named him John ;" " God 
called the firmament heaven ;" " Congress chose him Speaker ;" 
•' The people elected General Taylor President ;" " Did I request 
thee, Maker, from my clay, to mould me man !" 

Obs. 2.— An active-^* ransitive verb is sometimes used transi- 
tively, when followed by a noun, of the same or a kindred signifi- 
cation ; as, " Let us run the race which is set before us." Xi May 
we live the life, and die the death of the righteous. "• 

Obs. 3 — There are several transitive, intransitive, and neuter 
verbs that resemble one another, in the use of which, care should 
be taken not to confound or misapply them ; as, " Raise the win- 
dow," not, rise the window ; " He lies in bed late," not, he lays 
in bed late ; " Go and lie down," not lay down ; " Will you sit 
down ?" not, will you set down ? " Set him a chair," not sit him 
a chair. 



136 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

RULE XIII.— PARTICIPLES. 

The Present and Compound Perfect Parti- 
ciples of active-transitive verbs govern the 
objective case ; as, 

" They found him transgressing the laws." 

" He went into the synagogue, disputing and persuading 
the things concerning the kingdom of God." 

" Esteeming themselves wise, they became fools." 

" Having cut the loaf, he distributed it." 

" Having exposed himself too much in an unhealthy 
climate, he entirely lost his health." 

Obs. 1. — When the present participle is preceded by an article, 
it loses its-verbal character, and becomes a Participial JVoun ; 
as such, it cannot govern an object after it, but must be followed, 
for that purpose, by the preposition of; as, " He was sent to pre- 
pare the way, by the preaching of repentance ;" " This was a 
betraying of the trust reposed in him." 

If the article be omitted, the preposition should be omitted 
also ; as, " He was sent to prepare the way by preaching repent- 
ance," not, by the preaching repentance, nor, by preaching of 
repentance." " Poverty turns our thoughts upon the supplying 
of our wants, and riches upon enjoying our superfluities." 

Obs. 2. — As the perfect participle and tne imperfect indicative 
of a number of the irregular verbs are different in their form, 
care must be Jaken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is 
frequently said, " He begun " for " he began;" " He run" for 
*■ he ran ;" " He drunk" for " he drank ;" " I done it," for " I 
did it ;" " I seen him yesterday," for " I saw him ;" the partici- 
ple being here improperly used, instead of the imperfect tense ; 
and much more frequently the imperfect tense is used instead of 
the participle ; as, " I had wrote" for " I had written ;" " I was 
chose" for " I was chosen ;" " I have eat" for " I have eaten;" 
"He would have spoke" for "spoken,-" "The sun has rose" 



SYNTAX. 1ST 

"risen;" "His mind is too strong to be shook" "shaken;" 
u These verses were wrote on paper," *' written ;" " Philosophers 
have often mistook the source of true happiness," " mistaken." 



RULE XIV.— PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 

11 Is this for me ? put it on the table." 

11 From him that is needy, turn not away." 

" We went from New York to Boston on the railroad" 

Obs. 1. — A noun or a pronoun following like, unlike, near, 
next, and nigh, is in the objective case, governed generally by 
the preposition to or unto understood; as, "Mary looks very 
much like (unto) her mother, and not unlike (to) her sister ;" 
" He came near (to) the city ;" " He sat next (to) me." 

Obs. 2. — The objective follows the word worth, without a prepo- 
sition expressed ; as, " She is worth him and all the rest of his 
family ;" " This hat is worth five dollars." 



RULE XV.— PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns must agree with their antece- 
dents, or the nouns, or pronouns which they 
represent, in person, number, and gender ; as, 

" This is the boy who studies so diligently; he will make 
a good scholar." 

" The girl that sits by you, is very modest ; she will 
be a very amiable woman." 

" The pen which you gave me, is very good ; I can 
write with it very well." 



138 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

" Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love 
it too." 

Obs. — Personal pronouns, as well as nouns, are often the ante- 
cedents to relatives ; as, " / who am your senior, will not suffer 
such abuse ;" " Grod is a spirit, and they that worship Him, must 
worship Him in spirit and in truth ;" " He that fears not God, 
will be punished." 



RULE XVI.— PRONOUNS. 

I. The relative is the nominative case to 
the verb, when no other nominative comes 
between it and the verb ; as, 

" The master who taught us, was kind." 
" They who seek wisdom, will certainly find her." 
" The trees which were planted, are in a thriving con- 
dition." 

" The child that was sick, appears to be well." 

II. When a nominative comes between 
the relative and the verb, the relative is 
governed by the verb "or noun following, or 
by a preposition preceding it ; as, 

u God, whom we worship, is the Lord, by whose gift we 
live, and by whom all things were made." 

" He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose 
I am, and whom I serve is eternal." 

" Our tutors are our benefactors, to whom we owe 
obedience, and whom we ought to love." 

Obs. — When who, which, and what, are used interrogatively, 
the noun or pronoun which is the subsequent, or answer to the 



STNTAX. 139 

question, must be in the same case as the interrogative ; as, 
" Whose books are these ? They are John's." " Who gave 
them to him ? We" " Of whom did you buy them ? Of a 
bookseller, him who lives in the village." " Whom did you see 
there ? We saw both him and the clerk" 



RULE XVII.— ADJECTIVES. 

Every adjective belongs to a noun, ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, 

" This is an honest man." 

" That is a sweet apple." 

" We saw poor Monimia ; she is happy because she is 
virtuous." 

"The industrious bee reproves the slothful clown." 

" The Supreme Being is the wisest t the most powerful, 
and the best of beings." 

Obs. 1. — Adjectives frequently relate to pronouns, and indi- 
rectly through them to the nouns which they represent ; as, 
" The man is happy, he is benevolent, he is useful:" " I am 
happy;" "he is miserable:" "they are jovial;" "we are 
sincere'" 

Obs. 2. — When we wish to express quality, an adjective should 
be used ; but, when the manner of an action or affirmation is to 
be designated, an adverb is the proper attribute ; as, " She looks 
cold;" "she looks coldly on him." "He feels warm;" " he 
feels warmly the insult offered to him." " He became sincere 
and virtuous ; he became sincerely virtuous." "She lives free 
from care; she lives freely at another's expense." "Harriet 
always appears neat ; she dresses neatly" 

Obs. 3. — The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally 
requires the word immediately connected with it, to be an adjec- 
tive, and not. an adverb ; as, " This is agreeable to our internet." 



140 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

"Rules should be conformable to sense." And, consequently, 
when any other verb can be substituted for the verb to be, with- 
out varying the sense or the construction, it also should have an 
adjective, instead of an adverb, connected with it; as, "The 
rose smells (is) sweet." " How delightful the country appears 
(is)." " The apples taste (are) sour" " They feel (are) 
happy" " How black the sky looks (is)." 

Obs. 4. — Adjectives are frequently used instead of adverbs, to 
express the action of verbs ; as, " The fire burns blue." " Open 
the door wide." " Close the window tight" " The purest clay 
burns white." " Apples eook soft" " Eggs boil hard." " He 
feels sick." " The grass is cut close" 



RULE XVIII.— ADJECTIVES. 



Numeral and pronominal adjectives must 
agree with their nouns, in number ; as, 

One man, ten men, another man, that book, those books, 
few women, many boys, several girls. 



RULE XIX.— THE INFINITIVE. 

The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, 
participle, noun, pronoun, or an adjective; as, 

" The scholar that desires to learn, loves to study J 7 
" They are willing to go. 97 

II Being determined to excel, he studied day and night. 7 ' 
u He has a letter to write. 97 

II I invited him to call. 97 

" I am very happy to hear of his doing so well." 



SYNTAX. 141 

Oes. 1. — The infinitive mood always has the sign to before it, 
except when it follows the active verbs bid, dare, (signifying to 
venture,) need, help, make, (to compel,) see, hear, feel, have, (to 
require,) and let ; as, "I bade him do it;" "You dare not do 
it ;" " You need, not work ;" " I will help him do it ;" " He made 
him learn his lesson;" " We saw him go ;" "She heard him 
say it ;" "I would have you read well ;" " They will let him go" 

But when these verbs are put into the passive form, the sign to 
should be expressed ; as, " He was seen to go ;" " he was heard 
to speak in his own defence;" " they were bidden to be on their 
guard," &c. 

Ojbs. 2. — The infinitive mood follows the conjunctions so — as, and 
than in comparison, and may be said to be governed by them ; as, 
" An object so high as to be invisible;" "It is more blessed to 
give than to receive" 

Obs. 3. — The infinitive mood has, sometimes, the nature of a 
noun, expressing the action itself which the verb signifies. Thus 
the infinitive performs the office of a noun in different cases : in 
the nominative ; as, " To play is pleasant ;" " To err is human :" 
in the objective; as, "Boys love to play ;" "Men like to com- 
mand." 



RULE XX.— THE SAME CASE. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter 
verbs, have the same case after as before 
them, when both words refer to, and signify 
the same thing ; as, 

"Paul departed from Jerusalem, a persecutor; he 
returned a Christian. 77 

" Tom struts a soldier, .open, bold, and brave; 
Will sneaks a scriv'ner, an exceeding knave." 

"The child was named John. 77 



142 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

" He was admitted a counsellor." 
" Hortensius died a martyr 77 

Obs. — The active-intransitive, and the other neuter verbs, 
besides to be, that have the same case after as before them, are 
the following : — to become, to wander, to go, to return, to expire, 
to appear, to die, to live, to look, to grow, to seem, to roam, and 
several others ; as, " After this event, he became physician to the 
king ;" " She wanders an outcast ;" " He went out mate, and he 
returned captain;" "And he expired a driveler and a show;" 
" This conduct made him appear an encourager of every virtue ;" 
"Napoleon died a prisoner;" "The gentle Sydney lived the 
shepherd's friend," &c. 



RULE XXI.— THE VERB, TO BE. 

The verb to be, through all its variations, 
has the same case after as before it ; as, 

"Jam he whom they invited." 

" Search the scriptures, &c, they are they which testify 
of me." 

" It was J, and not he that wrote it." 

" It could not have been she who did it." 

11 If I were he I would do otherwise." 

" It appeared to be she that transacted the business." 

"We at first took it to be her; but were afterwards 
convinced that it was not she. 77 



RULE XXII.— ADVERBS. 



Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs ; as, 

" He reads well. 77 

" They are always talking." 



SYNTAX. 143 



"A man, leisurely walking on the railroad, was run 
over by the cars." 
" A truly good man." 
"He writes very correctly." 

Obs. 1. — For placing adverbs, on all occasions, no exact and 
determinate rule can be given ; the easy flow and perspicuity of 
the phrase are the things which should be chiefly regarded. 
Adverbs, therefore, require an appropriate situation in the sen- 
tence, and they should be placed near the words which they 
modify or affect. In most cases, they require to be placed before 
adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, or between the auxiliary 
and the verb ; as, " He made a very sensible discourse ; he spoke 
unaffectedly and forcibly, and was attentively heard by the 
whole assembly." 

Obs. 2. — When manner is to be expressed, an adverb must be 
employed; and when quality, an adjective; as, " She looks 
coldly on him ;" " she looks cold." 



RULE XXIII.— NEGATIVES. 

Two negatives in the same clause destroy 
each other, or are equivalent to an affirma- 
tive ; as, 

" Nor did they not perceive him f that is, " they did 
perceive him." 

" His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical ;" 
that is, " it is grammatical." 

Obs. — It is, in general, better to express an affirmation by a 
regular affirmative, than by two separate negatives ; but when 
one of the negatives, such as, dis, in, un, &c, is prefixed to 
another word, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate 



144 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

variety of expression; as, "Such things are not imcommon ;" 
that is, " they are common." "I am not displeased with 
him," &c. 



RULE XXIV.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

The conjunctions if though, unless, except, 
whether, &c, require the subjunctive mood 
after them, when doubt and futurity are 
both implied ; as, 

"Ifl were to write, he would not regard it." 
11 He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." 
" Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him." 
" Whether it were I or they, so we preach." 

Obs. 1. — When doubt only, and not futurity, is implied, the 
indicative is used ; as, " If he speaks as he thinks, he may be 
safely trusted;" " Though He was rich, yet for our sake He 
becamg poor." 

Obs. 2. — The indicative is also used, when the conjunctions are 
of a positive and absolute nature, or when a fact or truism is 
asserted ; as, "He is healthy, because he is temperate;" " As 
virtue advances, so vice recedes" 

Obs. 3. — Lest and that annexed to a command preceding, neces- 
sarily require the subjunctive mood ; as, " Let him that standeth, 
take heed lest he fall ;" "Take heed that thou speak not to 
Jacob." 

Obs. 4. — The conjunction ^y\with but following it, when futurity 
is denoted, requires the subjunctive mood ; as, " If He do but 
touch the hills, they shall smoke;" " If he be but discreet, he 
will succeed. 

Obs. 5. — The conjunction than is used after the comparatives 
both of adjectives and adverbs, and after else, other, otherwise, 
and rather, to introduce the subsequent term of comparison ; as, 



SYNTAX. 145 

44 Wisdom is better than wealth ;" " To trust in Him is no more 
than to acknowledge His power ;" " Such praise is little else than 
flattery." "This is no other than the gate of Paradise ;" "He 
cannot do otherwise than to sell ;" " I would rather sail to 
Europe than to California." 

The words, in each of the following pairs, are the proper cor- 
respondents to each other, and they should be so placed, that 
the latter answers to the former. 

1. — Though — yet ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sake 
he became poor." 

2. — Whether— or ; as, " Whether he will or not, I cannot 
tell." 

3. — Either — or ; as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself." 

4. — JVeither — nor; as, " The Baptist came, neither eating 
bread, nor drinking wine." 

5. — Both — and ; as, " Both the quick, and the dead." 

6. — As — as ; Correlatives of the positive degree, to express 
equality ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister ;" " He will go as 
soon as he can." 

7. — As — so ; with two verbs, to express equality or proportion ; 
as, " As one dieth, so dieth the other ;" " As two are to four, so 
are ten to twenty." 

8. — So — as; with an adjective or adverb, in a negative sen- 
tence, to deny equality ; as, *' He is not so good as his neighbor ;" 
44 Pompey was not so great a man as Caesar." 

9. — So — as ; with a verb expressing a comparison of equality ; 
as, 4 ' How can you be so wicked as to lie." 

10. — So — that ; expressing a consequence; as, 44 He was so 
fatigued, that he could scarcely move." 



RULE XXV.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs, and the same cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, 

" He reads and writes well." 



146 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

" Candor is to be approved and practised" 

" If thou sincerely desire and earnestly pursue virtue, 
she will assuredly be found by thee, and prove a rich 
reward/'' 

" The master taught her and me to write." 

" He and she were school-fellows." 

Obs. 1. — The conjunctions as and than, in comparison, have the 
same case after them as that which next precedes them, namely, 
when one thing, or a class of things is compared with another, the 
susbequent term of comparison, which follows the conjunction as 
or than after the positive or the comparative degree, must be in 
the same case as the antecedent term ; therefore, the latter noun or 
pronoun is either the subject of the verb, or the object of the verb 
or the preposition, expressed or understood ; as, " We are as 
happy as you (are) ;" " He will go as soon as she (will go) ;" 
" He will do it for him as well as (for) me ;" " Thou art wiser 
than I (am) ;" " They loved him more than (they loved) me ;" 
" He will do the work better for you than (for) me." 

Obs. 2. — The word but is generally used as a conjunction, and 
like as and than, is followed by the same case after as before it, 
expressed or understood; as, "No man hath ascended up to 
heaven, but He (hath ascended up to heaven) that came down 
from heaven." "I saw no person, but (I saw) Aim." "The 
present was not sent to him, but me ;" that is, " but to me." 

Obs. 3. — But is occasionally used by some modern writers, as a 
preposition, in the sense of except ; as, 

" The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but. him had fled." — Hkmans. 

" All but me were rewarded." " All went home, but him and 
me." 

Obs. 4. — When the relative who immediately follows than, it is 
always in the objective case ; as, " Moses, than whom, a meeker 
man never lived, was not perfect;" " Beelzebub, than whom. 
Satan excepted, none higher sat." 

The phrase, than whom, is, however, avoided by the best 
modern writers, and has become almost obsolete." 



• SYNTAX. U7 

RULE XXVI.— INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have no relation to other 
words in a sentence ; as, 

11 Ok! I have ruined my friend ; Alas I what shall I do V J 

Obs. — Interjections have no government; but in phrases, Of 
Oh ! and Ah ! are followed by the objective case of a pronoun in 
the first person; as, "0 me! Oh me! Ah me I" and by the 
nominative case in the second person ; as, " thou persecutor !" 
" Oh ye hypocrites !" 

The pronouns of the second person are in the Nomi?iative Case 
Independent. 



ELLIPSIS. 



Ellipsis is the omission of some words, for 
the purpose of avoiding disagreeable repeti- 
tions, and of expressing our ideas in few 
words; as, instead of saying, "He was a 
learned man, he was a wise man, and he 
was a good man ;" we make use of the 
ellipsis, and say, " He was a learned, wise, 
and good man." 

When the omission of words would ob- 
scure the sentence, weaken its force, or be 
attended with an impropriety, they must be 
expressed ; as, in the sentence, " We are 
apt to love who love us," the word them 
should be supplied. " A beautiful held and 
trees," is not proper language. It should be, 
"Beautiful fields and trees;" or, " A beauti- 
ful field and fine trees." 



148 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical. 
Some examples of the ellipsis of the different parts of speech are 
the following : — 

1. — Of the Article : as, " A house and (a) garden ;" " The sun, 
(the) moon, and (the) stars." 

2. — Of the Noun : as, "Caesar came, and (Ccesar) saw, and 
(Ccesar) conquered ;" " The laws of God and (the laws of) man." 

3. — Of the Pronoun : as, " I love (him) and (I) fear him ;" 
" These are the goods (which) they bought." 

4. — Of the Adjective: as, "A young man and (a young) 
woman ;" " Affectionate brothers and (affectionate) sisters." 

5. — Of the Verb: as, " Thou art poor, and (thou art) misera- 
ble, and (thou art) blind, and (thou art) naked ;" " I will go and 
(/ will) dine with you;" "We succeeded, but they did not 
(succeed)." 

6. — Of the Adverb : as, " He spoke (wisely) and acted wisely ;" 
" Thrice I went and (thrice I) offered my service." 

7. — Of the Preposition : as, " The Lord do that which seemeth 
(to) Him good ;" " He went into the abbeys, (into) the halls, and 
(into) the public buildings;" " He also went through all the 
streets and (through) all the lanes of the city." 

8. — Of the Conjunction : as, " They confess the power, (and) 
wisdom, (and) goodness, and love of their Creator ;" " Though I 
love him, (yet) I do not flatter him ;" " He told me (that) he 
would do it ;" " As (if) it were." 

9. — Of the Interjection: as, u Oh ! pity and (Oh /) shame." 



PART IV, 



PROSODY. 



Prosody treats of punctuation, the true 
pronunciation of words, and the laws of ver- 
sification. 



PROSODY, 149 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a writ- 
ten composition into sentences, or parts of 
sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose 
of marking the different pauses which the 
sense intended to be conveyed, requires. 

The following are the principal stops or 
marks : — 

The Comma, marked , The Dash, marked 

The Semicolon, ; The Xote of Interrogation, ? 

The Colon, : The Xote of Exclamation, ! 

The Period, . The Parenthesis, ( ) 

Obs. — The duration of each pause cannot be precisely defined ; 
for it varies with the time of the whole. The same composition 
ma}' be rehearsed in quicker or slower time : but the proportion 
between the pauses, should be ever invariable. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; 
the Semicolon, a pause double that of the 
comma ; the Colon, double that of the semi- 
colon; and the Period, double that of the 
colon. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those 
parts of a sentence which, though very 
closely connected in sense and construction, 
require a pause between them ; as, 

" David was a brave, wise, and pious man ;" " Kings, beggars, 
all are brethren : M " My son, give me thy heart ;' J " Plutarch 
calls lying, the vice of slaves ;" " Truth is fair and artless, sim- 



150 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR, 

pie and sincere, uniform and consistent ;" " Remember thy best 
friend ; formerly, the supporter of thy infancy ; now, the hope of 
thy coming years." 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a com- 
pound sentence into two or more parts, not 
so closely connected as those which are 
separated by a comma, nor yet so little 
dependent on each other, as those which are 
distinguished by a colon; as, 

"Perform your duty faithfully ; for this will procure for you 
the blessing of heaven." "Everything grows old; efery thing 
passes away ; every thing disappears." 

OF THE COLON. 

A Colon is used to divide a sentence into 
two or more parts, less connected than those 
which are separated by a semicolon, but not 
so independent as to require a period ; as, 

" Nature confesses some atonement to be necessary : the Gospel 
discovers that the necessary atonement is made." " The Scrip- 
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these 
words: ' God is love.' " "If he has not been unfaithful to his 
king ; if he has not proved a traitor to his country : why is he 
afraid to confront his enemies." 

OF THE PERIOD. 

A Period, or Full Stop, is used, when a 
sentence is complete and independent, and 
not connected in construction with the fol- 
lowing sentence ; as, 

" Fear God." " Honor the king." '« Have charity towards aU 
men." 



PROSODY. 151 

The period should be used after every 
abbreviated word; as, M.S., P.S., N.B., i. e., 
inst., ult., Hon., Rev., Dr., &c, etc. 

THE DASH. 

The Dash is used, where the sentence 
breaks off abruptly, where a significant pause 
is required, or where there is an unexpected 
turn in the sentiment; as, 

" His children — but here my hearc began to bleed — and I was 
forced to go on with another part of the portrait." " Nature 
instantly ebbed again — the film returned to its place — the pulse 
fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbod — stopped again — moved— 
stopped." "Shall I go on? No." "Revere thyself: — and yet 
thyself despise." 

THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

The Note of Interrogation is used at the 
end of an interrogative sentence ; that is, 
when a question is asked ; as, 

" Who will accompany me ?" " Shall we always be friends ?" 
THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is used after 
expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, 
grief, &c, and also after invocations or 
addresses ; as, 

" My friend ! this conduct amazes me !" " Bless the Lord, 
my soul ! and forget not all His benefits !" 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some 
necessary information or useful remark, 



152 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

introduced into the body of a sentence 
obliquely, and which may be omitted with- 
out injuring the construction ; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

" Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the 
law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he 
liveth." 

OF THE OTHER MARKS. 

The other marks, which are occasionally made use of in compo- 
sition, are the following : — 

The Apostrophe, (') is used when a word is abbreviated or 
shortened ; as, 'tis, for it is ; tho' for though ; e'en, for even ; 
judged, for judged. Its chief use is to denote the possessive case 
of nouns ; as, " A man's property ; a woman's ornament." 

The Caret, (/\) is placed where some letter or word happens to 
be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. This 
mark is also called a Circumflex, when placed over a particular 
vowel, to denote a long syllable ; as, " Euphrates." 

The Hyphen, (-) is used in connecting the parts of compound 
words ; as, " Lap-dog, tea-pot, mother-in-law." Placed at the 
end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are 
carried forward to the next line. 

The Acute Accent, (') denotes a short syllable ; as, Fancy. The 
Grave, (a) denotes a long syllable ; as, Favor. 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable, is this (6); as, 
Rosy: and a short one, this (0); as, Folly. This last mark is 
called a Breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked ( " ), consists of two points placed over 
the latter of two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, 
and parts them into two syllables; as, Creator, atrial. 

The Section (§) marks the division of a discourse or chapter, 
into less parts or portions. 



PROSODY. 153 

The Paragraph (IT) denotes the beginning of a new subject, or 
a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This character is 
chiefly used in the Old and New Testaments. 

The Quotation Points, thus marked (" "), distinguish words 
that are quoted or transcribed from another author or speaker in 
his own words ; as, " The proper study of mankind is man." 

Crotchets or Brackets [ ] serve to enclose a word or sentence, 
which is to be explained, or the explanation itself, or which is 
intended to supply some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 

The Index or Hand 70^** points out something remarkable or 
worthy of particular attention. 

The Ellipsis denotes the omission of some letters in a 

word, or of some words in a verse ; as, " The k- g," for " the 

king." 

The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk (f), the Parallels (||), and the 
Double Bagger (f), and sometimes the letters of the alphabet, 
and the numerical figures, refer to notes in the margin, or at the 
bottom of the page. 

The Brace > , is used at the end of a triplet, or three lines of 
poetry having the same rhyme, or to connect a number of words 
having one common relation. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to begin with a Capital letter, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing. 

2.- The first word after a period ; and, if the two sentences are 
totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation 

3. The appellations of the Deity ; as, " God, Jehovah, the 
Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, 
the Holy Spirit." 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, 
ships ; as, " George, New York, Broadway, the Alps, the Hudson, 
the Roscius." 



154 GRAPHIC GRAMMAR. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, 
" Grecian, Roman, American, English, French, and Italian. " 

6. The first word of a quotation ; as, " Always remember this 
ancient maxim, * Know thyself.' " " Our great Lawgiver says, 
* Take up thy cross daily, and follow me. 5 " 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with 
a capital ; as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 

7. Every noun and principal word in the titles of books; as, 
" Webster's Dictionary of the English Language ;" " Thomson's 
Seasons ;" " Rollin's Ancient History." 

8. The first word of every line in poetry." 

9. The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, are written and 
printed in capitals ; as, " I write ;" " Hear, earth !" 

Other words besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, 
when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject 
of the composition ; as, " The Reformation, the Restoration, the 
Revolution." 






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